Rendering (computer graphics)
This article needs additional citations for verification. (May 2020) |
Rendering or image synthesis is the process of generating a
A software application or component that performs rendering is called a rendering engine,[1] render engine, rendering system, graphics engine, or simply a renderer.
Rendering is one of the major sub-topics of 3D computer graphics, and in practice it is always connected to the others. It is the last major step in the graphics pipeline, giving models and animation their final appearance. With the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since the 1970s, it has become a more distinct subject.
Rendering has uses in architecture, video games, simulators, movie and TV visual effects, and design visualization, each employing a different balance of features and techniques. A wide variety of renderers are available for use. Some are integrated into larger modeling and animation packages, some are stand-alone, and some are free open-source projects. On the inside, a renderer is a carefully engineered program based on multiple disciplines, including light physics, visual perception, mathematics, and software development.
Though the technical details of rendering methods vary, the general challenges to overcome in producing a 2D image on a screen from a 3D representation stored in a scene file are handled by the graphics pipeline in a rendering device such as a GPU. A GPU is a purpose-built device that assists a CPU in performing complex rendering calculations. If a scene is to look relatively realistic and predictable under virtual lighting, the rendering software must solve the rendering equation. The rendering equation does not account for all lighting phenomena, but instead acts as a general lighting model for computer-generated imagery.
In the case of 3D graphics, scenes can be
Usage
When the pre-image (a
For movie animations, several images (frames) must be rendered, and stitched together in a program capable of making an animation of this sort. Most 3D image editing programs can do this.
Features
A rendered image can be understood in terms of a number of visible features. Rendering research and development has been largely motivated by finding ways to simulate these efficiently. Some relate directly to particular algorithms and techniques, while others are produced together.
- Shading – how the color and brightness of a surface varies with lighting
- Texture-mapping – a method of applying detail to surfaces
- Bump-mapping – a method of simulating small-scale bumpiness on surfaces
- Fogging/participating medium – how light dims when passing through non-clear atmosphere or air
- Shadows – the effect of obstructing light
- Soft shadows– varying darkness caused by partially obscured light sources
- Reflection – mirror-like or highly glossy reflection
- Transparency (optics), transparency (graphic) or opacity– sharp transmission of light through solid objects
- Translucency– highly scattered transmission of light through solid objects
- Refraction – bending of light associated with transparency
- Diffraction – bending, spreading, and interference of light passing by an object or aperture that disrupts the ray
- Indirect illumination – surfaces illuminated by light reflected off other surfaces, rather than directly from a light source (also known as global illumination)
- Caustics (a form of indirect illumination) – reflection of light off a shiny object, or focusing of light through a transparent object, to produce bright highlights on another object
- Depth of field – objects appear blurry or out of focus when too far in front of or behind the object in focus
- Motion blur – objects appear blurry due to high-speed motion, or the motion of the camera
- Non-photorealistic rendering – rendering of scenes in an artistic style, intended to look like a painting or drawing
Assets
CAD libraries can have assets such as 3D models, textures, bump maps, HDRIs, and different Computer graphics lighting sources to be rendered.[2]
Techniques
Many rendering algorithms have been researched, and software used for rendering may employ a number of different techniques to obtain a final image.
Choosing how to render a scene usually involves a trade-off between speed and realism (although realism is not always desired). The techniques developed over the years follow a loose progression, with more advanced methods becoming practical as computing power and memory capacity increased.
An important distinction is between image order algorithms, which iterate over pixels of the image plane, and object order algorithms, which iterate over objects in the scene. For simple scenes, object order is usually more efficient, as there are fewer objects than pixels.
- Rasterization (including scanline rendering)
- Geometrically projects objects in the scene to an image plane. Different realistic or stylized effects can be obtained by coloring the pixels covered by the objects in different ways. Surfaces are typically divided into meshes of triangles before being rasterized. Rasterization is usually synonymous with "object order" rendering (as described above).
- Ray casting
- Uses geometric formulas to compute the first object that a ray intersects.[3]: 8 It can be used to implement "image order" rendering by casting a ray for each pixel, and finding a corresponding point in the scene. Ray casting is a fundamental operation used for both graphical and non-graphical purposes,[4]: 6 e.g. determining whether a point is in shadow, or checking what an enemy can see in a game.
- Ray tracing
- Simulates the bouncing paths of light caused by specular reflection and refraction, requiring a varying number of ray casting operations for each path. Advanced forms use Monte Carlo techniques to render effects such as area lights, depth of field, blurry reflections, and soft shadows, but computing global illumination is usually in the domain of path tracing.[3]: 9-13 [5]
- Path tracing
- Uses Monte Carlo integration with a simplified form of ray tracing, computing the average brightness of a sample of the possible paths that a photon could take when traveling from a light source to the camera (for some images, thousands of paths need to be sampled per pixel[4]: 8 ). It was introduced as a statistically unbiased way to solve the rendering equation, giving ray tracing a rigorous mathematical foundation.[6][3]: 11-13
- Radiosity
- A finite element analysis approach that breaks surfaces in the scene into pieces, and estimates the amount of light that each piece receives from light sources, or indirectly from other surfaces. Once the irradiance of each surface is known, the scene can be rendered using rasterization or ray tracing.[7]: 888-890, 1044-1045
Each of the above approaches has many variations, and there is some overlap. Path tracing may be considered either a distinct technique or a particular type of ray tracing.[7]: 846, 1021 Note that the usage of terminology related to ray tracing and path tracing has changed significantly over time.[3]: 7
Ray marching is a family of algorithms, used by ray casting, for finding intersections between a ray and a complex object, such as a volumetric dataset or a surface defined by a signed distance function. It is not, by itself, a rendering method, but it can be incorporated into ray tracing and path tracing, and is used by rasterization to implement screen-space reflection and other effects.[3]: 13
A technique called photon mapping or photon tracing uses forward ray tracing (also called particle tracing), tracing paths of photons from a light source to an object, rather than backward from the camera. The additional data collected by this process is used together with conventional backward ray tracing or path tracing.[7]: 1037-1039 Rendering a scene using only forward ray tracing is impractical, even though it corresponds more closely to reality, because a huge number of photons would need to be simulated, only a tiny fraction of which actually hit the camera.[8]: 7-9
Real-time rendering, including video game graphics, typically uses rasterization, but increasingly combines it with ray tracing and path tracing.[4]: 2 To enable realistic global illumination, real-time rendering often relies on pre-rendered ("baked") lighting for stationary objects. For moving objects, it may use a technique called light probes, in which lighting is recorded by rendering omnidirectional views of the scene at chosen points in space (often points on a grid to allow easier interpolation). These are similar to environment maps, but typically use a very low resolution or an approximation such as spherical harmonics.[9] (Note: Blender uses the term 'light probes' for a more general class of pre-recorded lighting data, including reflection maps.[10])
-
A low quality rasterized image, rendered by Blender's EEVEE renderer with low shadow map resolution and a low-resolution mesh
-
A low quality path traced image, rendered by Blender's Cycles renderer with only 16 sampled paths per pixel and a low-resolution mesh
-
A ray traced image, using the POV-Ray program (using only its ray tracing features) with a low-resolution mesh
-
A higher quality rasterized image, using Blender's EEVEE renderer with light probes
-
A higher quality path traced image, using Blender's Cycles renderer with 2000 sampled paths per pixel
-
A more realistic path traced image, using Blender's Cycles renderer with image-based lighting
Scanline rendering and rasterization
A high-level representation of an image necessarily contains elements in a different domain from pixels. These elements are referred to as
If a pixel-by-pixel (image order) approach to rendering is impractical or too slow for some task, then a primitive-by-primitive (object order) approach to rendering may prove useful. Here, one loop through each of the primitives, determines which pixels in the image it affects, and modifies those pixels accordingly. This is called rasterization, and is the rendering method used by all current graphics cards.
Rasterization is frequently faster than pixel-by-pixel rendering. First, large areas of the image may be empty of primitives; rasterization will ignore these areas, but pixel-by-pixel rendering must pass through them. Second, rasterization can improve
The older form of rasterization is characterized by rendering an entire face (primitive) as a single color. Alternatively, rasterization can be done in a more complicated manner by first rendering the vertices of a face and then rendering the pixels of that face as a blending of the vertex colors. This version of rasterization has overtaken the old method as it allows the graphics to flow without complicated textures (a rasterized image when used face by face tends to have a very block-like effect if not covered in complex textures; the faces are not smooth because there is no gradual color change from one primitive to the next). This newer method of rasterization utilizes the graphics card's more taxing shading functions and still achieves better performance because the simpler textures stored in memory use less space. Sometimes designers will use one rasterization method on some faces and the other method on others based on the angle at which that face meets other joined faces, thus increasing speed and not hurting the overall effect.
Ray casting
In ray casting the geometry which has been modeled is parsed pixel by pixel, line by line, from the point of view outward, as if casting rays out from the point of view. Where an object is
Ray casting involves calculating the "view direction" (from camera position), and incrementally following along that "ray cast" through "solid 3d objects" in the scene, while accumulating the resulting value from each point in 3D space. This is related and similar to "ray tracing" except that the raycast is usually not "bounced" off surfaces (where the "ray tracing" indicates that it is tracing out the lights path including bounces). "Ray casting" implies that the light ray is following a straight path (which may include traveling through semi-transparent objects). The ray cast is a vector that can originate from the camera or from the scene endpoint ("back to front", or "front to back"). Sometimes the final light value is derived from a "transfer function" and sometimes it's used directly.
Rough simulations of optical properties may be additionally employed: a simple calculation of the ray from the object to the point of view is made. Another calculation is made of the angle of incidence of light rays from the light source(s), and from these as well as the specified intensities of the light sources, the value of the pixel is calculated. Another simulation uses illumination plotted from a radiosity algorithm, or a combination of these two.
Ray tracing
Ray tracing aims to simulate the natural flow of light, interpreted as particles. Often, ray tracing methods are utilized to approximate the solution to the
In a final, production quality rendering of a ray traced work, multiple rays are generally shot for each pixel, and traced not just to the first object of intersection, but rather, through a number of sequential 'bounces', using the known laws of optics such as "angle of incidence equals angle of reflection" and more advanced laws that deal with refraction and surface roughness.
Once the ray either encounters a light source, or more probably once a set limiting number of bounces has been evaluated, then the surface illumination at that final point is evaluated using techniques described above, and the changes along the way through the various bounces evaluated to estimate a value observed at the point of view. This is all repeated for each sample, for each pixel.
In
As part of the approach known as physically based rendering, path tracing has become the dominant technique for rendering realistic scenes, including effects for movies.[12] For example, the popular open source 3D software Blender uses path tracing in its Cycles renderer.[13] Images produced using path tracing for global illumination are generally noisier than when using radiosity (the main competing algorithm), but radiosity can be difficult to apply to complex scenes and is prone to artifacts that arise from using a tessellated representation of irradiance.[12][7]: 975-976, 1045
Path tracing's relative simplicity and its nature as a
Advances in GPU technology have made real-time ray tracing possible in games, although it is currently almost always used in combination with rasterization.[4]: 2 This enables visual effects that are difficult with only rasterization, including reflection from curved surfaces and interreflective objects,[20]: 305 and shadows that are accurate over a wide range of distances and surface orientations.[21]: 159-160 Ray tracing support is included in recent versions of the graphics APIs used by games, such as DirectX, Metal, and Vulkan.[22]
Neural rendering
Neural rendering is a rendering method using
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2022) |
Radiosity
Radiosity is a method which attempts to simulate the way in which directly illuminated surfaces act as indirect light sources that illuminate other surfaces. This produces more realistic shading and seems to better capture the 'ambience' of an indoor scene. A classic example is a way that shadows 'hug' the corners of rooms.
The optical basis of the simulation is that some diffused light from a given point on a given surface is reflected in a large spectrum of directions and illuminates the area around it.
The simulation technique may vary in complexity. Many renderings have a very rough estimate of radiosity, simply illuminating an entire scene very slightly with a factor known as ambiance. However, when advanced radiosity estimation is coupled with a high quality ray tracing algorithm, images may exhibit convincing realism, particularly for indoor scenes.
In advanced radiosity simulation, recursive, finite-element algorithms 'bounce' light back and forth between surfaces in the model, until some recursion limit is reached. The colouring of one surface in this way influences the colouring of a neighbouring surface, and vice versa. The resulting values of illumination throughout the model (sometimes including for empty spaces) are stored and used as additional inputs when performing calculations in a ray-casting or ray-tracing model.
Due to the iterative/recursive nature of the technique, complex objects are particularly slow to emulate. Prior to the standardization of rapid radiosity calculation, some
Radiosity calculations are viewpoint independent which increases the computations involved, but makes them useful for all viewpoints. If there is little rearrangement of radiosity objects in the scene, the same radiosity data may be reused for a number of frames, making radiosity an effective way to improve on the flatness of ray casting, without seriously impacting the overall rendering time-per-frame.
Because of this, radiosity is a prime component of leading real-time rendering methods, and has been used from beginning-to-end to create a large number of well-known recent feature-length animated 3D-cartoon films.
Sampling and filtering
One problem that any rendering system must deal with, no matter which approach it takes, is the sampling problem. Essentially, the rendering process tries to depict a continuous function from image space to colors by using a finite number of pixels. As a consequence of the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem (or Kotelnikov theorem), any spatial waveform that can be displayed must consist of at least two pixels, which is proportional to image resolution. In simpler terms, this expresses the idea that an image cannot display details, peaks or troughs in color or intensity, that are smaller than one pixel.
If a naive rendering algorithm is used without any filtering, high frequencies in the image function will cause ugly aliasing to be present in the final image. Aliasing typically manifests itself as jaggies, or jagged edges on objects where the pixel grid is visible. In order to remove aliasing, all rendering algorithms (if they are to produce good-looking images) must use some kind of low-pass filter on the image function to remove high frequencies, a process called antialiasing.
Optimization
Due to the large number of calculations, a work in progress is usually only rendered in detail appropriate to the portion of the work being developed at a given time, so in the initial stages of modeling, wireframe and ray casting may be used, even where the target output is ray tracing with radiosity. It is also common to render only parts of the scene at high detail, and to remove objects that are not important to what is currently being developed.
For real-time, it is appropriate to simplify one or more common approximations, and tune to the exact parameters of the scenery in question, which is also tuned to the agreed parameters to get the most 'bang for the buck'.
Academic core
The implementation of a realistic renderer always has some basic element of physical simulation or emulation – some computation which resembles or abstracts a real physical process.
The term "physically based" indicates the use of physical models and approximations that are more general and widely accepted outside rendering. A particular set of related techniques have gradually become established in the rendering community.
The basic concepts are moderately straightforward, but intractable to calculate; and a single elegant algorithm or approach has been elusive for more general purpose renderers. In order to meet demands of robustness, accuracy and practicality, an implementation will be a complex combination of different techniques.
Rendering research is concerned with both the adaptation of scientific models and their efficient application.
The rendering equation
This is the key academic/theoretical concept in rendering. It serves as the most abstract formal expression of the non-perceptual aspect of rendering. All more complete algorithms can be seen as solutions to particular formulations of this equation.
Meaning: at a particular position and direction, the outgoing light (Lo) is the sum of the emitted light (Le) and the reflected light. The reflected light being the sum of the incoming light (Li) from all directions, multiplied by the surface reflection and incoming angle. By connecting outward light to inward light, via an interaction point, this equation stands for the whole 'light transport' – all the movement of light – in a scene.
The bidirectional reflectance distribution function
The bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) expresses a simple model of light interaction with a surface as follows:
Light interaction is often approximated by the even simpler models: diffuse reflection and specular reflection, although both can ALSO be BRDFs.
Geometric optics
Rendering is practically exclusively concerned with the particle aspect of light physics – known as geometrical optics. Treating light, at its basic level, as particles bouncing around is a simplification, but appropriate: the wave aspects of light are negligible in most scenes, and are significantly more difficult to simulate. Notable wave aspect phenomena include diffraction (as seen in the colours of CDs and DVDs) and polarisation (as seen in LCDs). Both types of effect, if needed, are made by appearance-oriented adjustment of the reflection model.
Visual perception
Though it receives less attention, an understanding of
Mathematics used in rendering includes:
Rendering for movies often takes place on a network of tightly connected computers known as a render farm.
The current[ tailored for 3D hardware accelerators).
Other renderers (including proprietary ones) can and are sometimes used, but most other renderers tend to miss one or more of the often needed features like good texture filtering, texture caching, programmable shaders, highend geometry types like hair,
Chronology of important published ideas
- 1968 Ray casting[26]
- 1970 Scanline rendering[27]
- 1971 Gouraud shading[28]
- 1973 Phong shading[29][30]
- 1973 Phong reflection[29]
- 1973 Diffuse reflection[31]
- 1973 Specular highlight[29]
- 1973 Specular reflection[29]
- 1974 Sprites[32]
- 1974 Scrolling[32]
- 1974 Texture mapping[33]
- 1974 Z-buffering[33]
- 1976 Environment mapping[34]
- 1977 Blinn shading[35]
- 1977 Side-scrolling[36]
- 1977 Shadow volumes[37]
- 1978 Shadow mapping[38]
- 1978 Bump mapping[39]
- 1979 Tile map[40]
- 1980 BSP trees[41]
- 1980 Ray tracing[42]
- 1981 Parallax scrolling[43]
- 1981 Sprite zooming[44]
- 1981 Cook shader[45]
- 1983 MIP maps[46]
- 1984 Octree ray tracing[47]
- 1984 Alpha compositing[48]
- 1984 Distributed ray tracing[49]
- 1984 Radiosity[50]
- 1985 Row/column scrolling[51]
- 1985 Hemicube radiosity[52]
- 1986 Light source tracing[53]
- 1986 Rendering equation[54]
- 1987 Reyes rendering[55]
- 1988 Depth cue[56]
- 1988 Distance fog[56]
- 1988 Tiled rendering[56]
- 1991 Xiaolin Wu line anti-aliasing[57][58]
- 1991 Hierarchical radiosity[59]
- 1993 Texture filtering[60]
- 1993 Perspective correction[61]
- 1993 Transform, clipping, and lighting[62]
- 1993 Directional lighting[62]
- 1993 Trilinear interpolation[62]
- 1993 Z-culling[62]
- 1993 Oren–Nayar reflectance[63]
- 1993 Tone mapping[64]
- 1993 Subsurface scattering[65]
- 1994 Ambient occlusion[66]
- 1995 Hidden-surface determination[67]
- 1995 Photon mapping[68]
- 1996 Multisample anti-aliasing[69]
- 1997 Metropolis light transport[70]
- 1997 Instant Radiosity[71]
- 1998 Hidden-surface removal[72]
- 2000 Pose space deformation[73]
- 2002 Precomputed Radiance Transfer[74]
See also
- 2D computer graphics – Computer-based generation of digital images
- 3D computer graphics – Graphics that use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data
- 3D rendering – Process of converting 3D scenes into 2D images
- Artistic rendering– Style of rendering
- Architectural rendering – creating two-dimensional images or animations showing the attributes of a proposed architectural design
- Chromatic aberration – Failure of a lens to focus all colors on the same point
- Displacement mapping – Computer graphics technique
- Font rasterization – Process of converting text from vector to raster
- Global illumination – Group of rendering algorithms used in 3D computer graphics
- Graphics pipeline – Procedure to convert 3D scenes to 2D images
- Heightmap – Type of raster image in computer graphics
- High-dynamic-range rendering – Rendering of computer graphics scenes by using lighting calculations done in high-dynamic-range
- Image-based modeling and rendering
- List of 3D rendering software
- Motion blur – Photography artifact from moving objects
- Non-photorealistic rendering – Style of rendering
- Normal mapping – Texture mapping technique
- Painter's algorithm – Algorithm for visible surface determination in 3D graphics
- Per-pixel lighting
- Physically based rendering – Computer graphics technique
- Pre-rendering
- Raster image processor – component used in a printing system which produces a raster image also known as a bitmap
- Radiosity – Computer graphics rendering method using diffuse reflection
- Ray tracing – Rendering method
- Real-time computer graphics – Sub-field of computer graphics
- Reyes – Computer software architecture in 3D computer graphics
- Scanline rendering/Scanline algorithm – 3D computer graphics image rendering method
- Software rendering – Generating images by computer software
- Sprite (computer graphics) – 2D bitmap displayed on top of a larger scene
- Unbiased rendering – Type of rendering in computer graphics
- Vector graphics – Computer graphics images defined by points, lines and curves
- VirtualGL
- Virtual model– Form of computer-aided engineering
- Virtual studio– Technology for television and film production
- Volume rendering – Representing a 3D-modeled object or dataset as a 2D projection
- Z-buffer algorithms – Type of data buffer in computer graphics
References
- ^ https://arvisual.eu/dictionary/rendering-engine/#:~:text=Definition,with%20a%20given%203D%20software.
- ^ https://cedreo.com/blog/sketchup-rendering-plugins/
- ^ S2CID 71144394.
- ^ ISBN 978-1138627000.
- ISBN 978-0-12-286160-4.
- . Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-55860-276-2.
- ISBN 978-0-12-286160-4.
- ^ "Unity Manual:Light Probes: Introduction". docs.unity3d.com. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ "Blender Manual: Rendering: EEVEE: Light Probes: Introduction". docs.blender.org. The Blender Foundation. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- )
- ^ ISBN 978-0262048026.
- ^ "Blender Manual: Rendering: Cycles: Introduction". docs.blender.org. The Blender Foundation. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ISBN 978-0262048026.
- ISBN 978-0262048026.
- ^ "Blender Manual: Rendering: Cycles: Optimizing Renders: Reducing Noise". docs.blender.org. The Blender Foundation. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ "Blender Manual: Rendering: Cycles: Render Settings: Sampling". docs.blender.org. The Blender Foundation. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ "Intel® Open Image Denoise: High-Performance Denoising Library for Ray Tracing". www.openimagedenoise.org. Intel Corporation. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ "NVIDIA OptiX™ AI-Accelerated Denoiser". developer.nvidia.com. NVIDIA Corporation. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- S2CID 71144394.
- S2CID 71144394.
- ^ "Khronos Blog: Ray Tracing In Vulkan". www.khronos.org. The Khronos® Group Inc. December 15, 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ S2CID 215416317.
- ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2022-02-08.
- S2CID 34496605. Retrieved 7 May 2018 – via dl.acm.org.
- ^ Appel, A. (1968). "Some techniques for shading machine renderings of solids" (PDF). Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference. Vol. 32. pp. 37–49. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-03-13.
- S2CID 15941472.
- S2CID 123827991. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2010-07-02.
- ^ a b c d "History | School of Computing". Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2021-11-22.
- S2CID 1439868. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2012-03-27.
- ^ Bui Tuong Phong, Illumination for computer generated pictures Archived 2016-03-20 at the Wayback Machine, Communications of ACM 18 (1975), no. 6, 311–317.
- ^ a b Putas. "The way to home 3d". vintage3d.org. Archived from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- ^ a b Catmull, E. (1974). A subdivision algorithm for computer display of curved surfaces (PDF) (PhD thesis). University of Utah. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-11-14. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- S2CID 408793.
- – via dl.acm.org.
- ^ "Bomber - Videogame by Sega". www.arcade-museum.com. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- ^ Crow, F.C. (1977). "Shadow algorithms for computer graphics" (PDF). Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1977). Vol. 11. pp. 242–248. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-13. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.134.8225.
- Blinn, J.F. (1978). Simulation of wrinkled surfaces (PDF). Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1978). Vol. 12. pp. 286–292. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2012-01-21.
- ISBN 978-0814337226. Archivedfrom the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2018 – via Google Books.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.112.4406.
- S2CID 9524504.
- ^ Purcaru, Bogdan Ion (13 March 2014). "Games vs. Hardware. The History of PC video games: The 80's". Purcaru Ion Bogdan. Archived from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2018 – via Google Books.
- ^ "System 16 - Sega VCO Object Hardware (Sega)". www.system16.com. Archived from the original on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.88.7796.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.163.6298.
- S2CID 16965964.
- ^ Porter, T.; Duff, T. (1984). Compositing digital images (PDF). Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984). Vol. 18. pp. 253–259. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-02-16.
- ^ Cook, R.L.; Porter, T.; Carpenter, L. (1984). Distributed ray tracing (PDF). Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984). Vol. 18. pp. 137–145.[permanent dead link]
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.112.356.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - doi:10.1145/325165.325171. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2014-04-24. Retrieved 2020-03-25.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.31.581.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.63.1402.
- ^ Cook, R.L.; Carpenter, L.; Catmull, E. (1987). The Reyes image rendering architecture (PDF). Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1987). Vol. 21. pp. 95–102. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-15.
- ^ a b c "MAME | SRC/Mame/Drivers/Namcos21.c". Archived from the original on 2014-10-03. Retrieved 2014-10-02.
- ISBN 978-0-89791-436-9.
- ISBN 978-0-12-064480-3.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.93.5694.
- ^ "IGN Presents the History of SEGA". ign.com. 21 April 2009. Archived from the original on 16 March 2018. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- ^ "System 16 - Sega Model 2 Hardware (Sega)". www.system16.com. Archived from the original on 21 December 2010. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- ^ a b c d "System 16 - Namco Magic Edge Hornet Simulator Hardware (Namco)". www.system16.com. Archived from the original on 12 September 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- ^ M. Oren and S.K. Nayar, "Generalization of Lambert's Reflectance Model Archived 2010-02-15 at the Wayback Machine". SIGGRAPH. pp.239-246, Jul, 1994
- (PDF) from the original on 2011-12-08.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.57.9761.
- from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2018 – via dl.acm.org.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-10-11. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - .
- ^ "System 16 - Sega Model 3 Step 1.0 Hardware (Sega)". www.system16.com. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 7 May 2018.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.88.944.
- CiteSeerX 10.1.1.15.240.
- ^ "Hardware Review: Neon 250 Specs & Features". sharkyextreme.com. Archived from the original on 2007-08-07. Retrieved 2021-11-22.
- S2CID 12672235– via dl.acm.org.
- ^ Sloan, P.; Kautz, J.; Snyder, J. (2002). Precomputed Radiance Transfer for Real-Time Rendering in Dynamic, Low Frequency Lighting Environments (PDF). Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 2002). Vol. 29. pp. 527–536. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-24.
Further reading
- Akenine-Möller, Tomas; Haines, Eric; Hoffman, Naty; Pesce, Angelo; Iwanicki, Micał; Hillaire, Sébastien (2018). Real-time rendering (4 ed.). Boca Raton, FL, USA.: AK Peters. ISBN 978-1-13862-700-0.
- ISBN 978-1-55860-387-5.
- Cohen, Michael F.; Wallace, John R. (1998). Radiosity and realistic image synthesis (3 ed.). Boston, Mass. [u.a.]: Academic Press Professional. ISBN 978-0-12-178270-2.
- Philip Dutré; Bekaert, Philippe; Bala, Kavita (2003). Advanced global illumination ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Natick, Mass.: A K Peters. ISBN 978-1-56881-177-2.
- ISBN 978-0-201-12110-0.
- Andrew S. Glassner, ed. (1989). An introduction to ray tracing (3 ed.). London [u.a.]: Acad. Press. ISBN 978-0-12-286160-4.
- ISBN 978-1-55860-276-2.
- Gooch, Bruce; ISBN 978-1-56881-133-8.
- Jensen, Henrik Wann (2001). Realistic image synthesis using photon mapping ([Nachdr.] ed.). Natick, Mass.: AK Peters. ISBN 978-1-56881-147-5.
- Pharr, Matt; Humphreys, Greg (2004). Physically based rendering from theory to implementation. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0-12-553180-1.
- ISBN 978-1-56881-198-7.
- Strothotte, Thomas; Schlechtweg, Stefan (2002). Non-photorealistic computer graphics modeling, rendering, and animation (2 ed.). San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-1-55860-787-3.
- Ward, Gregory J. (July 1994). "The RADIANCE lighting simulation and rendering system". Proceedings of the 21st annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques - SIGGRAPH '94. pp. 459–72. S2CID 2487835.
External links
- GPU Rendering Magazine, online CGI magazine about advantages of GPU rendering
- SIGGRAPH – the ACMs special interest group in graphics – the largest academic and professional association and conference
- List of links to (recent, as of 2004) siggraph papers (and some others) on the web