Republic
Part of the Politics series |
Basic forms of government |
---|
List of countries by system of government |
Politics portal |
A republic, based on the Latin phrase res publica ('public affair'), is a state in which political power rests with the public through their representatives—in contrast to a monarchy.[1][2]
Representation in a republic may or may not be freely elected by the general citizenry. In many historical republics, representation has been based on personal status and the role of elections has been limited. This remains true today; among the 159 states that use the word republic in their official names as of 2017[update], and other states formally constituted as republics, are states that narrowly constrain both the right of representation and the process of election.
The term developed its modern meaning in reference to the constitution of the ancient Roman Republic, lasting from the overthrow of the kings in 509 BC to the establishment of the Empire in 27 BC. This constitution was characterized by a Senate composed of wealthy aristocrats wielding significant influence; several popular assemblies of all free citizens, possessing the power to elect magistrates from the populace and pass laws; and a series of magistracies with varying types of civil and political authority.
Most often a republic is a single
Etymology
The term originates from the Latin translation of Greek word politeia. Cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica, and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic (or similar terms in various European languages).[3]
The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. One of
However, in Book III of his Politics, Aristotle was apparently the first classical writer to state that the term politeia can be used to refer more specifically to one type of politeia: "When the citizens at large govern for the public good, it is called by the name common to all governments (to koinon onoma pasōn tōn politeiōn), government (politeia)". Also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a general way to refer to any regime, or in a specific way to refer to governments which work for the public good.[5]
In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments. In the late Middle Ages, writers such as Giovanni Villani began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, to describe the states. The terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states, writers (most importantly, Leonardo Bruni) adopted the Latin phrase res publica.[6]
While Bruni and
In subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica.[9] Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, but the word republic was also in common use.[10] Likewise, in Polish the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland.
At the present time, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the people rather than from another basis, such as heredity or divine right.[11]
History
While the philosophical terminology developed in classical Greece and Rome, as already noted by Aristotle there was already a long history of city states with a wide variety of constitutions, not only in Greece but also in the Middle East. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many free cities developed again, such as Venice.
Classical republics
The modern type of republic itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world.
The political philosophy of the classical republics has influenced republican thought throughout the subsequent centuries. Philosophers and politicians advocating republics, such as Machiavelli, Montesquieu, Adams, and Madison, relied heavily on classical Greek and Roman sources which described various types of regimes.
Over time, the classical republics became empires or were conquered by empires. Most of the Greek republics were annexed to the
Other ancient republics
The term republic is not commonly used to refer to pre-classical city-states, especially if outside Europe and the area which was under Graeco-Roman influence.[7] However some early states outside Europe had governments that are sometimes today considered similar to republics.
In the
Indian subcontinent
Early republican institutions come from the independent
Key characteristics of the gaṇa seem to include a monarch, usually known by the name
Scholars differ over how best to describe these governments, and the vague, sporadic quality of the evidence allows for wide disagreements. Some emphasize the central role of the assemblies and thus tout them as democracies; other scholars focus on the upper-class domination of the leadership and possible control of the assembly and see an oligarchy or an aristocracy.[31][32] Despite the assembly's obvious power, it has not yet been established whether the composition and participation were truly popular. This is reflected in the Arthashastra, an ancient handbook for monarchs on how to rule efficiently. It contains a chapter on how to deal with the saṅghas, which includes injunctions on manipulating the noble leaders, yet it does not mention how to influence the mass of the citizens, indicating that the gaṇasaṅgha are more of an aristocratic rule, or oligarchic republic, than democracy.[33]
Icelandic Commonwealth
The Icelandic Commonwealth was established in 930 AD by refugees from
In the early 13th century, the
Mercantile republics
In Europe new republics appeared in the late Middle Ages when a number of small states embraced republican systems of government. These were generally small, but wealthy, trading states, like the Mediterranean maritime republics and the Hanseatic League, in which the merchant class had risen to prominence. Knud Haakonssen has noted that, by the Renaissance, Europe was divided with those states controlled by a landed elite being monarchies and those controlled by a commercial elite being republics.[9]
Italy was the most densely populated area of Europe, and also one with the weakest central government. Many of the towns thus gained considerable independence and adopted commune forms of government. Completely free of feudal control, the Italian city-states expanded, gaining control of the rural hinterland.
Across Europe a wealthy merchant class developed in the important trading cities. Despite their wealth they had little power in the feudal system dominated by the rural land owners, and across Europe began to advocate for their own privileges and powers. The more centralized states, such as France and England, granted limited city charters.
In the more loosely governed
Two Russian cities with a powerful merchant class—
The dominant form of government for these early republics was control by a limited council of elite patricians. In those areas that held elections, property qualifications or guild membership limited both who could vote and who could run. In many states no direct elections were held and council members were hereditary or appointed by the existing council. This left the great majority of the population without political power, and riots and revolts by the lower classes were common. The late Middle Ages saw more than 200 such risings in the towns of the Holy Roman Empire.[37] Similar revolts occurred in Italy, notably the Ciompi Revolt in Florence.
Mercantile republics outside Europe
Following the collapse of the
Calvinist republics
While the classical writers had been the primary ideological source for the republics of Italy, in Northern Europe, the
Calvinism played an important role in the republican revolts in England and the Netherlands. Like the city-states of Italy and the Hanseatic League, both were important trading centres, with a large merchant class prospering from the trade with the New World. Large parts of the population of both areas also embraced Calvinism. During the
In 1641 the
Liberal republics
Along with these initial republican revolts, early modern Europe also saw a great increase in monarchical power. The era of absolute monarchy replaced the limited and decentralized monarchies that had existed in most of the Middle Ages. It also saw a reaction against the total control of the monarch as a series of writers created the ideology known as liberalism.
Most of these Enlightenment thinkers were far more interested in ideas of constitutional monarchy than in republics. The Cromwell regime had discredited republicanism, and most thinkers felt that republics ended in either anarchy or tyranny.[41] Thus philosophers like Voltaire opposed absolutism while at the same time being strongly pro-monarchy.
The
With the
The
Outside Europe another group of republics was created as the
In Mexico this autocracy briefly took the form of a monarchy in the First Mexican Empire. Due to the Peninsular War, the Portuguese court was relocated to Brazil in 1808. Brazil gained independence as a monarchy on September 7, 1822, and the Empire of Brazil lasted until 1889. In many other Latin American states various forms of autocratic republic existed until most were liberalized at the end of the 20th century.[42]
European states in 1815[43] Monarchies (55)
Republics (9)
|
European states in 1914[44] Monarchies (22)
Republics (4)
|
European states in 1930[45] Monarchies (20)
Republics (15)
|
European states in 1950[46] Monarchies (13)
Republics (21)
|
European states in 2015[47] Monarchies (12)
Republics (35)
|
The French Second Republic was created in 1848, but abolished by Napoleon III who proclaimed himself Emperor in 1852. The French Third Republic was established in 1870, when a civil revolutionary committee refused to accept Napoleon III's surrender during the Franco-Prussian War. Spain briefly became the First Spanish Republic in 1873–74, but the monarchy was soon restored. By the start of the 20th century France, Switzerland and San Marino remained the only republics in Europe. This changed when, after the 1908 Lisbon Regicide, the 5 October 1910 revolution established the Portuguese Republic.
In East Asia, China had seen considerable anti-Qing sentiment during the 19th century, and a number of protest movements developed calling for constitutional monarchy. The most important leader of these efforts was Sun Yat-sen, whose Three Principles of the People combined American, European, and Chinese ideas. Under his leadership the Republic of China was proclaimed on January 1, 1912.
Republican ideas were spreading, especially in Asia. The United States began to have considerable influence in East Asia in the later part of the 19th century, with
During this period, two short-lived republics were proclaimed in East Asia; the Republic of Formosa and the First Philippine Republic.
Republicanism expanded significantly in the aftermath of
The aftermath of
Decolonization
In the years following World War II, most of the remaining European colonies gained their independence, and most became republics. The two largest colonial powers were France and the United Kingdom. Republican France encouraged the establishment of republics in its former colonies. The United Kingdom attempted to follow the model it had for its earlier settler colonies of creating independent Commonwealth realms still linked under the same monarch. While most of the settler colonies and the smaller states in the Caribbean and the Pacific retained this system, it was rejected by the newly independent countries in Africa and Asia, which revised their constitutions and became republics instead.
Britain followed a different model in the Middle East; it installed local monarchies in several colonies and mandates including
Socialist republics
In the wake of the First World War, the Russian monarchy fell during the
Communism also intermingled with other ideologies. It was embraced by many national liberation movements during decolonization. In Vietnam, communist republicans pushed aside the Nguyễn dynasty, and monarchies in neighbouring Laos and Cambodia were overthrown by communist movements in the 1970s. Arab socialism contributed to a series of revolts and coups that saw the monarchies of Egypt, Iraq, Libya, and Yemen ousted. In Africa, Marxism–Leninism and African socialism led to the end of monarchy and the proclamation of republics in states such as Burundi and Ethiopia.
Islamic republics
Islamic political philosophy has a long history of opposition to absolute monarchy, notably in the work of
None of these states are typically referred to as republics. The current usage of republic in Muslim countries is borrowed from the western meaning, adopted into the language in the late 19th century.
Constitution
A republic does not necessarily have a
Head of state
Structure
With no monarch, most modern republics use the title
If the head of state of a republic is also the head of government, this is called a presidential system. There are a number of forms of presidential government. A full-presidential system has a president with substantial authority and a central political role.
In other states the legislature is dominant and the presidential role is almost purely ceremonial and apolitical, such as in
The rules for appointing the president and the leader of the government, in some republics permit the appointment of a president and a prime minister who have opposing political convictions: in France, when the members of the ruling cabinet and the president come from opposing political factions, this situation is called cohabitation.
In some countries, like
Elections
In
In states with a parliamentary system the president is usually elected by the parliament. This indirect election subordinates the president to the parliament, and also gives the president limited legitimacy and turns most presidential powers into reserve powers that can only be exercised under rare circumstance. There are exceptions where elected presidents have only ceremonial powers, such as in Ireland.
Ambiguities
The distinction between a republic and a monarchy is not always clear. The
Terms such as "liberal republic" are also used to describe all of the modern liberal democracies.[61]
There are also self-proclaimed republics that act similarly to absolute monarchies with absolute power vested in the leader and passed down from father to son. North Korea and Syria are two notable examples where a son has inherited political control. Neither of these states are officially monarchies. There is no constitutional requirement that power be passed down within one family, but it has occurred in practice.
There are also
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had an elective monarchy, with a wide suffrage of some 500,000 nobles. The system, known as the Golden Liberty, had developed as a method for powerful landowners to control the crown. The proponents of this system looked to classical examples, and the writings of the Italian Renaissance, and called their elective monarchy a rzeczpospolita, based on res publica.
Sub-national republics
In general being a republic also implies sovereignty as for the state to be ruled by the people it cannot be controlled by a foreign power. There are important exceptions to this, for example, republics in the Soviet Union were member states which had to meet three criteria to be named republics:
- be on the periphery of the Soviet Union so as to be able to take advantage of their theoretical right to secede;
- be economically strong enough to be self-sufficient upon secession; and
- be named after at least one million people of the ethnic group which should make up the majority population of said republic.
It is sometimes argued that the former Soviet Union was also a supra-national republic, based on the claim that the member states were different nation states.
The
In Switzerland, all cantons can be considered to have a republican form of government, with constitutions, legislatures, executives and courts; many of them being originally sovereign states. As a consequence, several Romance-speaking cantons are still officially referred to as republics, reflecting their history and will of independence within the Swiss Confederation. Notable examples are the Republic and Canton of Geneva and the Republic and Canton of Ticino.[62]
States of the United States are required, like the federal government, to be republican in form, with final authority resting with the people. This was required because the states were intended to create and enforce most domestic laws, with the exception of areas delegated to the federal government and prohibited to the states. The founders of the country intended most domestic laws to be handled by the states. Requiring the states to be a republic in form was seen as protecting the citizens' rights and preventing a state from becoming a dictatorship or monarchy, and reflected unwillingness on the part of the original 13 states (all independent republics) to unite with other states that were not republics. Additionally, this requirement ensured that only other republics could join the union.
In the example of the United States, the original 13 British
Other meanings
Part of the Politics series |
Republicanism |
---|
Politics portal |
Archaic meaning
Before the 17th Century, the term 'republic' could be used to refer to states of any form of government as long as it was not a tyrannical regime. French philosopher Jean Bodin's definition of the republic was "the rightly ordered government of a number of families, and of those things which are their common concern, by a sovereign power." Oligarchies and monarchies could also be included as they were also organised toward 'public' shared interests.[11] In medieval texts, 'republic' was used to refer to the body of shared interest with the king at its head.[63][64] For instance, the Holy Roman Empire was also known as the Sancta Respublica Romana, the Holy Roman Republic.[65][66] The Byzantine Empire also continued calling itself the Roman Republic as the Byzantines did not regard monarchy as a contradiction to republicanism. Instead, republics were defined as any state based on popular sovereignty and whose institutions were based on shared values.[67]
Democracy vs. republic debate
While the term democracy has been used interchangeably with the term republic by some, others have made sharp distinctions between the two for millennia. "Montesquieu, founder of the modern constitutional state, repeated in his The Spirit of the Laws of 1748 the insight that Aristotle had expressed two millennia earlier, 'Voting by lot is in the nature of democracy; voting by choice is in the nature of aristocracy.'"[68] Additional critics of elections include Rousseau, Robespierre, and Marat, who said of the new French Republic, "What use is it to us, that we have broken the aristocracy of the nobles, if that is replaced by the aristocracy of the rich?"[69]
Political philosophy
The term republic originated from the writers of the
This understanding of a republic as a form of government distinct from a liberal democracy is one of the main theses of the Cambridge School of historical analysis.[71] This grew out of the work of J. G. A. Pocock who in 1975 argued that a series of scholars had expressed a consistent set of republican ideals. These writers included Machiavelli, Milton, Montesquieu and the founders of the United States of America.
Pocock argued that this was an ideology with a history and principles distinct from liberalism.[72] These ideas were embraced by a number of different writers, including Quentin Skinner, Philip Pettit[73] and Cass Sunstein. These subsequent writers have further explored the history of the idea, and also outlined how a modern republic should function.
United States
A distinct set of definitions of the term "republic" evolved in the United States, where the term is often equated with "representative democracy." This narrower understanding of the term was originally developed by James Madison[74][75] and notably employed in Federalist Paper No. 10. This meaning was widely adopted early in the history of the United States, including in Noah Webster's dictionary of 1828.[76] It was a novel meaning to the term; representative democracy was not an idea mentioned by Machiavelli and did not exist in the classical republics.[77] There is also evidence that contemporaries of Madison considered the meaning of "republic" to reflect the broader definition found elsewhere, as is the case with a quotation of Benjamin Franklin taken from the notes of James McHenry where the question is put forth, "a Republic or a Monarchy?".[78]
The term republic does not appear in the
However, the term republic is not synonymous with the republican form. The republican form is defined as one in which the powers of sovereignty are vested in the people and are exercised by the people, either directly, or through representatives chosen by the people, to whom those powers are specially delegated.
Beyond these basic definitions, the word republic has a number of other connotations. W. Paul Adams observes that republic is most often used in the United States as a synonym for "state" or "government," but with more positive connotations than either of those terms.[81] Republicanism is often referred to as the founding ideology of the United States.[82][83] Traditionally scholars believed this American republicanism was a derivation of the classical liberal ideologies of John Locke and others developed in Europe.[82]
In the 1960s and 1970s, Bernard Bailyn began to argue that republicanism was just as, or even more important than liberalism in the creation of the United States.[84] This issue is still much disputed and scholars like Isaac Kramnick completely reject this view.[85]
See also
- Commonwealth
- Democracy
- Democratic republic
- Free state
- Primus inter pares
- List of republics
- Index: Republics
- Republicanism
- Republics of Russia
- Guarantee Clause of the U.S. Constitution
References
- ^ "Republic | Definition of Republic by the Oxford English Dictionary". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 2022-05-10.
A state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy. Also: a government, or system of government, of such a state; a period of government of this type. The term is often (especially in the 18th and 19th centuries) taken to imply a state with a democratic or representative constitution and without a hereditary nobility, but more recently it has also been used of autocratic or dictatorial states not ruled by a monarch. It is now chiefly used to denote any non-monarchical state headed by an elected or appointed president.
- ^ "Definition of Republic". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2017-02-18.
a government having a chief of state who is not a monarch
- ^ "Republic". Merriam Webster. Merrium-Webster Inc. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
- ^ Bloom, Allan. The Republic. Basic Books, 1991. pp. 439–40
- ^ "Republic | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2018-10-20.
- ^ Rubinstein, Nicolai. "Machiavelli and Florentine Republican Experience" in Machiavelli and Republicanism Cambridge University Press, 1993.
- ^ a b c d e "Republic"j, New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005. p. 2099
- ^ Lewis, Charlton T.; Short, Charles (1879). "res, II.K". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved August 14, 2010.
- ^ a b Haakonssen, Knud. "Republicanism." A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. eds. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995.
- ^ Everdell (2000) p. xxiii.
- ^ a b Munro, André. "republic". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 15 Dec 2021.
- ^ Nippel, Wilfried. "Ancient and Modern Republicanism". The Invention of the Modern Republic ed. Biancamaria Fontana. Cambridge University Press, 1994 p. 6
- ^ Reno, Jeffrey. "republic". International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences p. 184
- ^ Pocock, J.G.A. The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (1975; new ed. 2003)
- ^ Paul A. Rahe, Republics, Ancient and Modern, three volumes, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1994.
- ISBN 9789953171050.
- ISBN 978-9953-0-1849-2.
- ISBN 978-0-8223-2717-2.
- ^
Clarke, Adam (1825). "PREFACE To The BOOK OF JUDGES". The Holy Bible Containing the Old and New Testaments: The Text Printed from the Most Correct Copies of the Present Authorized Translation Including the Marginal Readings and Parallel Texts with a Commentary and Critical Notes Designed as a Help to a Better Understanding of the Sacred Writings. Vol. 2. New-York: N. Bangs and J. Emory. p. 3. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
The persons called Judges [...] were the heads or chiefs of the Israelites who governed the Hebrew Republic from the days of Moses and Joshua, till the time of Saul.
- ^
ISBN 9780226224824. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
[...] Samuel [...] has the distinction of being the first self-conscious republican in his society of whom we have nearly contemporary written record and of whose actual existence we can be reasonably sure.
- ^ a b Everdell (2000)
- ^ Nwauwa, Apollos O. "Concepts of Democracy and Democratization in Africa Revisited". Archived from the original on 14 August 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2022.
- ^ Diodorus 2.39
- ^ Larsen, 1973, pp. 45–46
- ^ de Sainte, 2006, pp. 321–3
- ^ Robinson, 1997, p. 22
- ^ Robinson, 1997, p. 23
- ISBN 9780520242258. Retrieved 28 October 2013.
- ^ Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.107
- ^ Republics in ancient India. Brill Archive. pp. 93–. GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0.
- ^ Bongard-Levin, 1996, pp. 61–106
- ^ Sharma 1968, pp. 109–22
- ^ Trautmann T. R., Kautilya and the Arthashastra, Leiden 1971
- ^ Chu, Henry (April 2, 2011). "Iceland seeks to become sanctuary for free speech". Los Angeles Times.
- ^ a b Finer, Samuel. The History of Government from the Earliest Times Oxford University Press, 1999. pp. 950–55.
- ^ Ferdinand Joseph Maria Feldbrugge. Law in Medieval Russia, IDC Publishers, 2009
- ^ Finer, pp. 955–956.
- ^ Finer, Samuel. The History of Government from the Earliest Times. Oxford University Press, 1999. p. 1020.
- ^ "Republicanism". Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment p. 435
- ^ "Introduction". Republicanism: a Shared European Heritage. By Martin van Gelderen and Quentin Skinner. Cambridge University Press, 2002 p. 1
- ^ "Republicanism". Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment p. 431
- ^ "Latin American Republicanism" New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Ed. Maryanne Cline Horowitz. Vol. 5. Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005.
- Bremen, Lübeck and Frankfurt, the Most Serene Republic of San Marino, the Republic of Cospaia, the Septinsular Republic and the German Confederation; however, member states of the German Confederation are also separately counted (35 monarchies).
- ^ The Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire are counted amongst Europe.
- Kingdom of Hungaryas a nominal monarchy.
- Spanish Stateas a nominal monarchy.
- Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus(recognised only by Turkey) and all other unrecognised states are excluded from the count.
- ^ "Italia", Dizionario enciclopedico italiano (in Italian), vol. VI, Treccani, 1970, p. 456
- ^ Guichonnet, Paul (1975). Histoire de l'Italie (in French). Presses universitaires de France. p. 121. [ISBN unspecified]
- ISBN 978-88-96817-06-3.
- ^ Bocca, Giorgio (1981). Storia della Repubblica italiana (in Italian). Rizzoli. pp. 14–16. [ISBN unspecified]
- JSTOR 442274
- ^ Anderson, Lisa. "Absolutism and the Resilience of Monarchy in the Middle East." Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 106, No. 1 (Spring, 1991), pp. 1–15
- ^ Bernard Lewis. "The Concept of an Islamic Republic" Die Welt des Islams, New Series, Vol. 4, Issue 1 (1955), pp. 1–9
- OED, s. v.
- ^ "Presidential Systems" Governments of the World: A Global Guide to Citizens' Rights and Responsibilities. Ed. C. Neal Tate. Vol. 4. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2006. pp. 7–11.
- ^ Article VII, Constitution of the United States
- ^ Article II, Para 2, Constitution of the United States
- ^ Petrocelli, William (10 November 2016). "Voters In Wyoming Have 3.6 Times The Voting Power That I Have. It's Time To End The Electoral College". huffingtonpost.com.
- ^ The novelist and essayist H. G. Wells regularly used the term crowned republic to describe the United Kingdom, for instance in his work A Short History of the World. Alfred, Lord Tennyson in his poem Idylls of the King .
- Dunn, John. "The Identity of the Bourgeois Liberal Republic". The Invention of the Modern Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
- ^ "République" (in French). Historical Dictionary of Switzerland. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
Les nouveaux cantons de la Suisse latine choisirent le titre de république, qui soulignait leur indépendance, alors que "canton" met l'accent sur l'appartenance à la Confédération; Genève, Neuchâtel et le Tessin l'ont conservé jusqu'à nos jours.
[The new cantons of Latin Switzerland chose the title of republic, which underlined their independence, while "canton" emphasizes membership of the Confederation; Geneva, Neuchâtel and Ticino have kept it to this day.] - ISBN 9780813208428.
- ISBN 9780521834872.
- ISBN 9780813210834.
- ISBN 9781509917426.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ISBN 9780812208405.
- ^ Van Reybrouck, David. Against Elections (p. 75). Seven Stories Press. 2016.
- ^ Van Reybrouck, David. Against Elections (p. 85). Seven Stories Press. 2016.
- ^ "Republicanism Archived 2018-03-09 at the Wayback Machine" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Jun 19, 2006
- ^ McCormick, John P. "Machiavelli against Republicanism: On the Cambridge School's 'Guicciardinian Moments'" Political Theory, Vol. 31, No. 5 (Oct., 2003), pp. 615–43
- ^ Pocock, J. G. A The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition Princeton: 1975, 2003
- ISBN 0-19-829083-7; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
- ^ "Democracy - Democracy or republic?". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-06-27.
- ^ "What Is a Democracy? [ushistory.org]". www.ushistory.org. Retrieved 2021-06-27.
- ^ "SEARCHING -word- for [republic] :: Search the 1828 Noah Webster's Dictionary of the English Language (FREE) :: 1828.mshaffer.com". 1828.mshaffer.com. Retrieved 2021-06-27.
- ^ Everdell (2000) p. 6
- ^ "1593. Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790). Respectfully Quoted: A Dictionary of Quotations. 1989". 25 June 2022.
- ^ In re Duncan, 139 U.S. 449, 11 S.Ct. 573, 35 L.Ed. 219; Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. (21 Wall.) 162, 22 L.Ed. 627.
- ^ GOVERNMENT (Republican Form of Government) – One in which the powers of sovereignty are vested in the people and are exercised by the people ... directly ... Black's Law Dictionary, Sixth Edition, p. 695
- ^ W. Paul Adams "Republicanism in Political Rhetoric Before 1776". Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 85, No. 3 (Sep., 1970), pp. 397–421
- ^ a b Wood, Gordon (April 1990). "Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution". Chicago-Kent Law Review. 66: 13–20. Archived from the original on Mar 7, 2023.
- ^ Hutchins, Thomas; Washington, George; Paine, Thomas; Jefferson, Thomas; Adams, John; Fadden, Will (2008-04-12). "Founded on a Set of Beliefs - Creating the United States | Exhibitions". Library of Congress. Retrieved 2021-06-27.
- ^ Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967.
- ^ Kramnick, Isaac. Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism: Political Ideology in Late Eighteenth-Century England and America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990.
Further reading
- Martin van Gelderen & Quentin Skinner, eds., Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage, v. 1, Republicanism and Constitutionalism in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 2002
- Martin van Gelderen & Quentin Skinner, eds., Republicanism: A Shared European Heritage, v. 2, The Values of Republicanism in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 2002
- Willi Paul Adams, "Republicanism in Political Rhetoric before 1776", Political Science Quarterly 85(1970), pp. 397–421.
- Joyce Appleby, "Republicanism in Old and New Contexts", in William & Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 43 (January, 1986), pp. 3–34.
- Joyce Appleby, ed., "Republicanism" issue of American Quarterly 37 (Fall, 1985).
- Sarah Barber, Regicide and Republicanism: Politics and Ethics in the English Republic, 1646–1649, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998.
- Gisela Bock, Quentin Skinner & Maurizio Viroli, eds., Machiavelli and Republicanism, Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 1990.
- Everdell, William R. (2000), The End of Kings: A History of Republics and Republicans (2nd ed.), Chicago: University of Chicago Press
- Eric Gojosso, Le concept de république en France (XVIe – XVIIIe siècle), Aix/Marseille, 1998, pp. 205–45.
- James Hankins, "Exclusivist Republicanism and the Non-Monarchical Republic", Political Theory 38.4 (August 2010), 452–82.
- Frédéric Monera, L'idée de République et la jurisprudence du Conseil constitutionnel – Paris: L.G.D.J., 2004 Fnac, LGDJ.fr
- Philip Pettit, Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997, pp. x and 304.
- J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975
- J. G. A. Pocock, "Between Gog and Magog: The Republican Thesis and the Ideologia Americana", Journal of the History of Ideas 48 (1987), p. 341
- J. G. A. Pocock, "The Machiavellian Moment Revisited: A Study in History and Ideology" Journal of Modern History 53 (1981)
- Paul A. Rahe, Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution, 3 v., Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press 1992, 1994.
- Jagdish P. Sharma, Republics in ancient India, c. 1500 B.C.–500 B.C., 1968
- David Wootton, ed., Republicanism, Liberty, and Commercial Society, 1649–1776 (The Making of Modern Freedom series), Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994.
External links
- Media related to Republic at Wikimedia Commons
- Media related to Republics at Wikimedia Commons
- The dictionary definition of republic at Wiktionary
- Quotations related to Republic at Wikiquote
- Everdell, William R. Everdell. "From State to Freestate: The Meaning of the Word Republic from Jean Bodin to John Adams". Archived 2019-03-24 at the Wayback Machine (7th ISECS, Budapest, 7/31/87). Valley Forge Journal. June 1991.