Botswana
Republic of Botswana Lefatshe la Botswana (Tswana) | |
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Motto: Pula "Let it Rain" | |
Anthem: | |
Religion (2021) |
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Demonym(s) |
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Government | Unitary dominant-party parliamentary republic with an executive presidency[5][6] |
Mokgweetsi Masisi[7] | |
Slumber Tsogwane | |
Phandu Skelemani | |
Legislature | Parliament (National Assembly) |
Independence from the United Kingdom | |
• Established (Constitution) | 30 September 1966 |
+267 | |
ISO 3166 code | BW |
Internet TLD | .bw |
Website www |
Tswana | |
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Person | Motswana [4] |
People | Batswana |
Language | Setswana |
Country | Botswana |
Botswana (
A country of slightly over 2.3 million people,
The Tswana ethnic group were descended mainly from
The economy is dominated by
Botswana is a member of the
Etymology
The country's name means "Land of the Tswana", referring to the dominant ethnic group in Botswana.[31] The Constitution of Botswana recognizes a homogeneous Tswana state.[32] The term Batswana was originally applied to the Tswana, which is still the case.[33] However, it has also come to be used generally as a demonym for all citizens of Botswana.[34]
History
Early history
Archaeological digs demonstrate that hominids lived in Botswana during the Pleistocene.[35] Stone tools and fauna remains have shown that all areas of the country were inhabited at least 400,000 years ago.[36]
In October 2019, researchers reported that Botswana was the birthplace of all
It is unclear when
However, agriculture also played a vital role in the longevity of Toutswemogala Hill's extended occupation, as many grain storage structures have also been found on the site. Many different stratified layers of housing floors further signal continuous occupation over hundreds of years. The arrival of the ancestors of the Tswana-speakers who came to control the region has yet to be dated precisely. Members of the
Effects of the Mfecane and Batswana-Boer Wars
The first written records relating to modern-day Botswana appear in 1824. What these records show is that the Bangwaketse had become the predominant power in the region. Under the rule of Makaba II, the Bangwaketse kept vast herds of cattle in well-protected desert areas, and used their military prowess to raid their neighbours.
During the 1840s and 1850s trade with
Following the Great Trek, Afrikaners from the Cape Colony established themselves on the borders of Botswana in the Transvaal. In 1852 a coalition of Tswana chiefdoms led by Sechele I defeated Afrikaner incursions at the Battle of Dimawe and, after about eight years of intermittent tensions and hostilities, eventually came to a peace agreement in Potchefstroom in 1860. From that point on, the modern-day border between South Africa and Botswana was agreed on, and the Afrikaners and Batswana traded and worked together comparatively peacefully.[51][52]
In 1884, Batawana, a northern based Tswana clan's cavalry under the command of Kgosi Moremi fought and defeated the Ndebele's invasion of northern Botswana at the Battle of Khutiyabasadi. This blow to the larger invading Ndebele force signalled the start of the collapse of the Ndebele Kingdom in Zimbabwe and helped galvanise Tswana speaking authority of the area now making part of northern Botswana.[53]
Due to newly peaceful conditions, trade thrived between 1860 and 1880. Taking advantage of this were Christian missionaries. The Lutherans and the London Missionary Society both became established in the country by 1856. By 1880, every major village had a resident missionary, and their influence slowly became felt. Khama III (reigned 1875–1923) was the first of the Tswana chiefs to make Christianity a state religion and changed a great deal of Tswana customary law as a result. Christianity became the de facto official religion in all the chiefdoms by World War I.[54]
Colonialism and the Bechuanaland Protectorate
During the
In 1890, areas north of 22 degrees were added to the new
When the
An expansion of British central authority and the evolution of native government resulted in the 1920 establishment of two advisory councils to represent both Africans and Europeans.[60] The African Council consisted of the eight heads of the Tswana tribes and some elected members.[60] Proclamations in 1934 regulated tribal rule and powers. A European-African advisory council was formed in 1951, and the 1961 constitution established a consultative legislative council.
Independence
In June 1964, the United Kingdom accepted proposals for a democratic self-government in Botswana. An independence conference was held in London in February 1966.
Khama died in office in 1980. The presidency passed to the sitting vice-president, Quett Masire, who was elected in his own right in 1984 and re-elected in 1989 and 1994. Masire retired from office in 1998. He was succeeded by Festus Mogae, who was elected in his own right in 1999 and re-elected in 2004. The presidency passed in 2008 to Ian Khama (son of the first president), who had been serving as Mogae's vice-president since resigning his position in 1998 as Commander of the Botswana Defence Force to take up this civilian role. On 1 April 2018, Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi was sworn in as the fifth president of Botswana, succeeding Ian Khama. He represents the Botswana Democratic Party, which has also won a majority in every parliamentary election since independence. All the previous presidents have also represented the same party.[63]
A long-running dispute over the northern border with
In 2014, the Okavango Delta of Botswana, the largest inland delta in the world, was inscribed as the 1,000th World Heritage Site.
In the 1970s, Botswana held a reputation of being one the world's principal producers of diamonds.[65] This reputation has held into the modern day as Botswana's diamond mining industry is among the world's largest.[66][67] Botswana's Jwaneng mine in particular is the world's richest.[68]
Geography
At 581,730 km2 (224,607 sq mi) Botswana is the world's 48th-largest country. It is similar in size to Madagascar or France. It lies between latitudes 17° and 27° south, and longitudes 20° and 30° east.
Botswana is predominantly flat, tending towards gently rolling
The
Biodiversity and conservation
Botswana has diverse areas of wildlife habitat. In addition to the delta and desert areas, there are grasslands and savannas, where blue wildebeest, antelopes, and other mammals and birds are found. Northern Botswana has one of the few remaining large populations of the endangered African wild dog. Chobe National Park, found in the Chobe District, has the world's largest concentration of African elephants. The park covers about 11,000 km2 (4,247 sq mi) and supports about 350 species of birds.
The Chobe National Park and
Botswana faces two major environmental problems, drought and desertification, which are heavily linked. Three-quarters of the country's human and animal populations depend on groundwater due to drought. Groundwater use through deep borehole drilling has somewhat eased the effects of drought. Surface water is scarce in Botswana and less than 5% of the agriculture in the country is sustainable by rainfall. In the remaining 95% of the country, raising livestock is the primary source of rural income. Approximately 71% of the country's land is used for communal grazing, which has been a major cause of the desertification and the accelerating soil erosion of the country.[69]
Since raising livestock has been profitable for the people of Botswana, they continue to exploit the land with dramatically increasing numbers of animals. From 1966 to 1991, the livestock population grew from 1.7 million to 5.5 million.[69]: 64 Similarly, the human population has increased from 574,000 in 1971 to 1.5 million in 1995, a 161% increase in 24 years. Over 50% of all households in Botswana own cattle, which is currently the largest single source of rural income. Rangeland degradation or desertification is regarded as the reduction in land productivity as a result of overstocking and overgrazing, or as a result of veld product gathering for commercial use. Degradation is exacerbated by the effects of drought and climate change.[69]
Environmentalists report that the Okavango Delta is drying up due to the increased grazing of livestock.[70] The Okavango Delta is one of the major semi-forested wetlands in Botswana and one of the largest inland deltas in the world; it is a crucial ecosystem to the survival of many animals.[70]
The Department of Forestry and Range Resources has already begun to implement a project to reintroduce indigenous vegetation into communities in Kgalagadi South, Kweneng North and Boteti.
The United Nations Development Programme claims that poverty is a major problem behind the overexploitation of resources, including land, in Botswana. To help change this the UNDP joined in with a project started in the southern community of Struizendam in Botswana. The purpose of the project is to draw from "indigenous knowledge and traditional land management systems". The leaders of this movement are supposed to be the people in the community, to draw them in, in turn increasing their possibilities to earn an income and thus decreasing poverty. The UNDP also stated that the government has to effectively implement policies to allow people to manage their own local resources and are giving the government information to help with policy development.[73]
Government and politics
The Parliament of Botswana consists of the National Assembly, which serves as the nation's formal legislature, and the Ntlo ya Dikgosi, an advisory body made up of tribal chiefs and other appointed members.[79] Botswana's executive branch is led by the President of Botswana, who serves as both the head of state and head of government.[74] The members of parliament choose the president,[80] and the president then appoints the Vice-President and the members of the Cabinet.[81] The president has significant power in Botswana, and the legislature has little power to check the president once appointed.[80][82] The judiciary includes the High Court of Botswana, the Court of Appeal, and Magistrates' Courts.[83] Cases are often settled by customary courts with tribal chiefs presiding.[78]
Elections in Botswana are held every five years and overseen by the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC).[84] Botswana operates a multi-party system in which many political parties compete in elections,[75] but it is effectually a dominant-party state in which the Botswana Democratic Party has ruled with a majority government since independence.[85][86] The nation's elections are recognized as free and fair, but the ruling party has institutional advantages that other parties do not.[84][87] Factionalism is common within Botswana's political parties, and several groups have formed new parties by splitting from established ones.[75] Since 2019, the Umbrella for Democratic Change has operated as a coalition of opposition parties.[88] The most recent election was held in 2019, with the Botswana Democratic Party maintaining its majority and Mokgweetsi Masisi being re-elected president.[89]
In Botswana's early years, its politics were managed by President Seretse Khama and Vice-President (later president) Quett Masire.[90] Since the Kgabo Commission in 1991, factionalism and political rivalries have dominated Botswana politics. The Barata-Phathi faction was led by Peter Mmusi, Daniel Kwelagobe, and Ponatshego Kedikilwe, while the A-Team faction was led by Mompati Merafhe and Jacob Nkate.[91][92] When Festus Mogae and Ian Khama became president and vice-president, respectively, they aligned with the A-Team. Khama effectively expelled the A-Team from the party in 2010 after he became president.[92] A new rivalry formed in 2018 when Khama's chosen successor, Mokgweetsi Masisi, became president. He opposed Khama, and the two formed a political rivalry that looms over Batswana politics in the 2020s.[93]
Botswana was ranked as a "flawed democracy" and 33rd out of 167 states in the 2023
Foreign relations and military
At the time of independence, Botswana had no armed forces. It was only after the
Following political changes in South Africa and the region, the BDF's missions have increasingly focused on prevention of poaching, preparing for disasters, and foreign peacekeeping. The United States has been the largest single foreign contributor to the development of the BDF, and a large segment of its officer corps have received U.S. training. The Botswana government gave the United States permission to explore the possibility of establishing an Africa Command (AFRICOM) base in the country.[98]
Human rights
Until June 2019, homosexual acts were illegal in Botswana. A Botswana High Court decision of 11 June of that year struck down provisions in the Criminal Code that punished "carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature" and "acts of gross indecency", making Botswana one of twenty-two African countries that have either decriminalised or legalised homosexual acts.[99]
Capital punishment is a legal penalty for murder in Botswana, and executions are carried out by hanging.[100]
The Botswana Centre for Human Rights, Ditshwanelo, was established in 1993.[101]
San and other indigenous tribes
Many of the indigenous San people have been forcibly relocated from their land to reservations. To make them relocate, they were denied access to water on their land and faced arrest if they hunted, which was their primary source of food.[102] Their lands lie in the middle of the world's richest diamond field. Officially, the government denies that there is any link to mining and claims the relocation is to preserve the wildlife and ecosystem, even though the San people have lived sustainably on the land for millennia.[102] On the reservations they struggle to find employment, and alcoholism is rampant.[102]
On 24 August 2018 the UN Special Rapporteur on Minorities, Fernand de Varennes, issued a statement calling on Botswana "to step up efforts to recognise and protect the rights of minorities in relation to public services, land and resource use and the use of minority languages in education and other critical areas."[103] He also expressed, "Many minority children living in remote areas of the country are torn from their families and forced to stay in boarding school hostels, sometimes hundreds of kilometres away from their communities; they may be taught in a language they do not yet speak, with over-burdened care-givers not familiar with their culture, and often lacking material and emotional support. This form of institutionalisation leads to forced assimilation that has a serious negative impact on the performance in school of many, if not most, of these children, and often forces them to drop out, at a heavy personal and social cost. Less intrusive and harmful approaches to providing education for these children, particularly those of a very young age, must be explored and put into force."[103]
He continued, saying, "Since its independence in 1966, Botswana has not provided for the official recognition of its numerous tribes, with the exception of the Wayeyi and the Basubiya. In addition, it has maintained a three-tiered legislative and institutional framework that appears to award privileges to the eight constitutionally recognized Tswana tribes, both in terms of representation in the House of Chiefs as well as with regard to control of local administration structures."[103]
He stated, however, “Botswana has made considerable progress in economic development and other areas including education and literacy, religious freedom, the fight against HIV/AIDS and corruption, but more must be done for minorities.” [103]
Administrative divisions
Botswana's ten districts are:
- Southern District
- South-East District
- Kweneng District
- Kgatleng District
- Central District
- North-East District
- Ngamiland District
- Kgalagadi District
- Chobe District
- Ghanzi District
Botswana's councils created from urban or town councils are: Gaborone City, Francistown, Lobatse Town, Selebi-Phikwe Town, Jwaneng Town, Orapa Town and Sowa Township.
Economy
Since independence, Botswana has had one of the fastest growth rates in per capita income in the world.[104] Botswana has transformed itself from one of the poorest countries in the world to an upper middle-income country. GDP per capita grew from $439 in 1950 to $15,842 in 2018.[105] Although Botswana was resource-abundant, a good institutional framework allowed the country to reinvest resource-income in order to generate stable future income.[106] By one estimate, it has the fourth highest gross national income at purchasing power parity in Africa, giving it a standard of living around that of Mexico.[107]
The Ministry of Trade and Industry of Botswana is responsible for promoting
The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government respects this in practice. The legal system is sufficient to conduct secure commercial dealings, although a serious and growing backlog of cases prevents timely trials. The protection of intellectual property rights has improved significantly. Botswana is ranked second only to South Africa among sub-Saharan Africa countries in the 2014 International Property Rights Index.[110]
While generally open to foreign participation in its economy, Botswana reserves some sectors for citizens. Increased foreign investment plays a significant role in the privatisation of state-owned enterprises. Investment regulations are transparent, and bureaucratic procedures are streamlined and open, although somewhat slow. Investment returns such as profits and dividends, debt service, capital gains, returns on intellectual property, royalties, franchise's fees, and service fees can be repatriated without limits.[111]
Botswana imports refined petroleum products and electricity from South Africa. There is some domestic production of electricity from coal.
Energy
Recently, the country has taken a large interest in renewable energy sources and has completed a comprehensive strategy that may attract investors in the wind, solar and biomass renewable energy industries.[113]Botswana's power stations include Morupule Power Stations B(600 MW), and A (132 MW),[114] Orapa Power Station (90 MW) and Phakalane Power Station (1.3 MW).
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) undertook an evaluation of the national energy sector in 2021 and found that Botswana could meet 15% of its energy needs in 2030 from its indigenous solar, wind, and bioenergy resources.[115][116]Transport
Finance
An array of financial institutions populates the country's financial system, with pension funds and commercial banks being the two most important segments by asset size. Banks remain profitable, well-capitalised, and liquid, as a result of growing national resources and high interest rates.[119] The Bank of Botswana serves as a central bank. The country's currency is the Botswana pula.
Botswana's competitive banking system is one of Africa's most advanced. Generally adhering to global standards in the transparency of financial policies and banking supervision, the financial sector provides ample access to credit for entrepreneurs.[120] The Capital Bank opened in 2008.[121] As of August 2015[update], there are a dozen licensed banks in the country.[122] The government is involved in banking through state-owned financial institutions and a special financial incentives programme that is aimed at increasing Botswana's status as a financial centre.[123] Credit is allocated on market terms, although the government provides subsidised loans.[124] nk financial institution]]s has continued in recent years, notably through the establishment of a single financial regulatory agency that provides more effective supervision.[125] The government has abolished exchange controls, and with the resulting creation of new portfolio investment options, the Botswana Stock Exchange is growing.[126]
Gemstones and precious metals
In Botswana, the Department of Mines[127] and Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security[128] led by Hon Sadique Kebonang in Gaborone, maintains data regarding mining throughout the country. Debswana, the largest diamond mining company operating in Botswana, is 50% owned by the government.[129] The mineral industry provides about 40% of all government revenues.[130] In 2007, significant quantities of uranium were discovered, and mining was projected to begin by 2010. Several international mining corporations have established regional headquarters in Botswana, and prospected for diamonds, gold, uranium, copper, and even oil, many coming back with positive results. Government announced in early 2009 that they would try to shift their economic dependence on diamonds, over serious concern that diamonds are predicted to dry out in Botswana over the next twenty years.
Botswana's Orapa mine is the largest diamond mine in the world in terms of value and quantity of carats produced annually.[131] Estimated to have produced over 11 million carats in 2013, with an average price of $145/carat, the Orapa mine was estimated to produce over $1.6 billion worth of diamonds in 2013.[132]
Creative industries
Increasing importance is being given to the economic contribution of the creative industries to national economies. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) recompiles statistics about the export and import of goods and services related to the creative industries.[133] The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has assisted in the preparation of national studies measuring the size of over 50 copyright industries around the world.[134] According to the WIPO compiled data, the national contribution of creative industries varies from 2% to 11% depending on the country.
Using the WIPO-framework, the Companies and Intellectual Property Authority(CIPA) and the Botswana Institute for Development Policy Analysis were published by a sector-specific study in 2019.[135] In 2016, copyright industries contributed 5.46% to value-added and 2.66% to the total labour force, 1.28% to exports, and 3.47% to imports.
Demographics
Year | Million |
---|---|
1950 | 0.4 |
2000 | 1.7 |
2020 | 2.4 |
As of 2012, the Tswana are the majority ethnic group in Botswana, making up approximately 79% of the population, followed by Kalanga at 11% and the San (Basarwa) at 3%. The remaining 7% is made up of White Batswana/European Batswana,[138] Indians,[2] and a number of other smaller Southern African ethnic groups.
Native groups include the
Since 2000, because of deteriorating economic conditions in Zimbabwe, the number of Zimbabweans in Botswana has risen into the tens of thousands.[139] Fewer than 10,000 San people are still living their traditional hunter-gatherer way of life. Since the mid-1990s the central government of Botswana has been trying to move San out of their historic lands, with the main reason could be that they live on a diamond-rich region.[140]
James Anaya, as the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people for the United Nations in 2010, described loss of land as a major contributor to many of the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, citing the San's eviction from the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR)[141] as a special example.[142]: 2 Among Anaya's recommendations in a report to the United Nations Human Rights Council was that development programs should promote, in consultation with indigenous communities such as the San and Bakgalagadi people, activities in harmony with the culture of those communities such as traditional hunting and gathering activities.[142]: 19
Rank | Name | District | Pop. | Rank | Name | District | Pop. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gaborone Francistown |
1 | Gaborone | South-East | 246,325 | 11 | Kanye | Southern | 48,028 | Maun |
2 | Francistown | North-East | 103,417 | 12 | Selibe Phikwe | Central | 42,488 | ||
3 | Mogoditshane | Kweneng | 88,006 | 13 | Letlhakane | Central | 36,338 | ||
4 | Maun | North-West | 84,993 | 14 | Ramotswa | South-East | 33,271 | ||
5 | Molepolole | Kweneng | 74,674 | 15 | Lobatse | South-East | 29,772 | ||
6 | Serowe | Central | 55,676 | 16 | Mmopane | Kweneng | 25,345 | ||
7 | Tlokweng | South-East | 55,508 | 17 | Thamaga | Kweneng | 25,297 | ||
8 | Palapye | Central | 52,636 | 18 | Moshupa | Southern | 23,858 | ||
9 | Mochudi | Kgatleng | 50,317 | 19 | Tonota | Central | 23,296 | ||
10 | Mahalapye | Central | 48,431 | 20 | Bobonong | Central | 21,216 |
Languages
The official language of Botswana is English, while
Other languages spoken in Botswana include
Religion
An estimated 77% of the country's citizens identify as
Culture
Literature and cinema
Botswana literature belongs somewhere in the strong African literary writing circles. African literature is known for its consciousness and
In recent times and to date Botswana has seen a remarkable appearance of distinguished writers whose genres range from historical, political and witty story writing. Prominent amongst these are the South African-born Bessie Head, who settled in Serowe; Andrew Sesinyi; Barolong Seboni (whose works include Images of the Sun, Screams and Pleas, Lovesongs, Windsongs of the Kgalagadi and Lighting the Fire, and several other publications that include a play, Sechele I, and Setswana Riddles Translated into English); Unity Dow, Galesiti Baruti; Caitlin Davies; Lauri Kubuetsile; Albert Malikongwa; Toro Mositi; and Moteane Melamu.[148]
Most of Bessie Head's important works are set in Serowe. When Rain Clouds Gather (1968), Maru (1971), and A Question of Power (1973) all have this setting. The three are also autobiographical; When Rain Clouds Gather is based on her experience living on a development farm, Maru incorporates her experience of being considered racially inferior, and A Question of Power draws on her understanding of what it was like to experience acute psychological distress. Head also published a number of short stories, including the collection The Collector of Treasures (1977). She published a book on the history of Serowe, Serowe: Village of the Rainwind. Her last novel, A Bewitched Crossroad (1984), is historical, set in 19th-century Botswana. She had also written a story of two prophets, one wealthy and one who lived poorly, called Jacob: The Faith-Healing Priest.[149][150]
The 1981 comedy
The critically acclaimed A United Kingdom, about the real-life love story of Seretse Khama and Ruth Williams, was filmed partly between Botswana and London, and was released internationally in 2016.[152]
Media
There are six
Music
Botswana's music is mostly vocal and performed, sometimes without drums depending on the occasion; it also makes heavy use of string instruments. Botswana folk music has instruments such as setinkane (a sort of miniature piano), segankure/segaba (a Botswanan version of the Chinese instrument erhu), moropa (meropa -plural) (many varieties of drums), phala (a whistle used mostly during celebrations, which comes in a variety of forms). Botswanan cultural musical instruments are not confined only to the strings or drums. The hands are used as musical instruments too, by either clapping them together or against phathisi (goat skin turned inside out wrapped around the calf area, only used by men) to create music and rhythm. For the last few decades, the guitar has been celebrated as a versatile music instrument for Tswana music as it offers a variety in string which the segaba instrument does not have. The national anthem is "Fatshe leno la rona". Written and composed by Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete, it was adopted upon independence in 1966.[153][154][155]
Visual arts
In the northern part of Botswana, women in the villages of Etsha and Gumare are noted for their skill at crafting baskets from Mokola Palm and local dyes. The baskets are generally woven into three types: large, lidded baskets used for storage, large, open baskets for carrying objects on the head or for winnowing threshed grain, and smaller plates for winnowing pounded grain. The artistry of these baskets is being steadily enhanced through colour use and improved designs as they are increasingly produced for international markets.[156]
The oldest paintings from both Botswana and South Africa depict hunting, animal and human figures, and were made by the Khoisan (!Kung San/Bushmen) over twenty thousand years ago within the
Food
The cuisine of Botswana mostly includes meat as Botswana is a cattle country. The national dish is seswaa, pounded meat made from goat meat or beef, Segwapa dried, cured meat ranging from beef to game meats & the cut may also vary, either fillets of meat cut into strips following the grain of the muscle, or flat pieces sliced across the grain. Botswana's cuisine shares some characteristics with other cuisine of Southern Africa.
Examples of Botswana food are:
Many different kinds of beans are grown, including cowpeas, ditloo, and letlhodi. Some vegetables grow in the wild and are available seasonally including thepe and Delele (okra). Many fruits are locally available, including marula. Watermelons, believed to have come originally from Botswana, are plentiful in season. Another kind of melon, called lerotse or lekatane, is also grown. Some kinds of wild melon found in sandy desert areas are an important food and water source for the people who live in those areas. Kgalagadi Breweries Limited produces the national beer, St. Louis Lager, Botswana's first and only local beer brand that has also been a part of Botswana's rich history since 1989, and non-alcoholic beverage Keone Mooka Mageu, a traditional fermented porridge.
Sports
On 7 August 2021 Botswana won the bronze medal in the Men's 4 × 400 metres relay at the Olympics in Tokyo.
The card game bridge has a strong following; it was first played in Botswana around 40 years ago, and it grew in popularity during the 1980s. Many British expatriate schoolteachers informally taught the game in Botswana's secondary schools. The Botswana Bridge Federation (BBF) was founded in 1988 and continues to organise tournaments. Bridge has remained popular and the BBF has over 800 members.[160] In 2007 the BBF invited the English Bridge Union to host a week-long teaching programme in May 2008.[161]
Education
Botswana has made great strides in educational development since independence in 1966. At that time there were very few graduates in the country and only a very small percentage of the population attended secondary school. Botswana increased its adult literacy rate from 69% in 1991 to 83% in 2008.[162] Among sub-Saharan African countries, Botswana has one of the highest literacy rates.[163] According to The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency as of 2015, 88.5% of the population age 15 and over could read and write and were respectively literate.[163]
With the discovery of diamonds and the increase in government revenue that this brought, there was a huge increase in educational provision in the country. All students were guaranteed ten years of basic education, leading to a Junior Certificate qualification. Approximately half of the school population attends a further two years of secondary schooling leading to the award of the Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE). Secondary education in Botswana is neither free nor compulsory.
After leaving school, students can attend one of the seven technical colleges in the country, or take vocational training courses in teaching or nursing. Students enter the University of Botswana, Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Botswana International University of Science and Technology and the Botswana Accountancy College in Gaborone. Many other students end up in the numerous private tertiary education colleges around the country. Notable among these is Botho University, the country's first private university which offers undergraduate programs in Accounting, Business and Computing. Another international university is the Limkokwing University of Creative Technology which offers various associate degrees in Creative Arts.[164] Other tertiary institutions include Ba Isago, ABM University College the largest school of business and management, New Era, Gaborone Institute of Professional Studies, Gaborone University College of Law And Professional Studies etc. Tremendous strides in providing quality education have been made by private education providers such that a large number of the best students in the country are now applying to them as well. A vast majority of these students are government sponsored. The nation's second international university, the Botswana International University of Science and Technology, was completed in Palapye in 2011.
The quantitative gains have not always been matched by qualitative ones. Primary schools in particular still lack resources, and the teachers are less well paid than their secondary school colleagues.
The
In January 2006, Botswana announced the reintroduction of school fees after two decades of free state education[168] though the government still provides full scholarships with living expenses to any Botswana citizen in university, either at the University of Botswana or if the student wishes to pursue an education in any field not offered locally, they are provided with a full scholarship to study abroad.
Science and technology
Botswana is planning to use science and technology to diversify its economy and thereby reduce its dependence on diamond mining. To this end, the government has set up six hubs since 2008, in the agriculture, diamonds, innovation, transport, health and education sectors.[169]
Botswana published its updated National Policy on Research, Science and Technology in 2011, within a UNESCO project sponsored by the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation and Development (AECID). This policy aims to take up the challenges of rapid technological evolution, globalisation and the achievement of the national development goals formulated in high-level strategic documents that include Botswana's Tenth National Development Plan to 2016 and Vision 2016.[169] The National Policy on Research, Science, Technology and Innovation (2011) fixes the target of raising gross domestic expenditure on research and development (R&D) from 0.26% of GDP in 2012 to over 2% of GDP by 2016. This target can only be reached within the specified time frame by raising public spending on R&D.[169]
Despite the modest level of financial investment in research, Botswana counts one of the highest researcher densities in sub-Saharan Africa: 344 per million inhabitants (in head counts), compared to an average of 91 per million inhabitants for the subcontinent in 2013.[169] Botswana was ranked 85th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[170][171]
In 2009, Botswana-based company Deaftronics launched a solar-powered hearing aid after six years of prototype development. Since then, Deaftronics has sold over 10,000 of the hearing aids. Priced at $200 per unit, each hearing aid includes four rechargeable batteries (lasting up to three years) and a solar charger for them. The product is inexpensive compared to many similar devices, that can start from around $600.[172][173]
In 2011, Botswana's Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) unveiled Musi cattle, designed to ultimately optimise the overall efficiency for beef production under Botswana conditions. A hybrid of
In 2016, the Botswana Institute of Technology Research and Innovation (BITRI) developed a rapid testing kit for foot-and-mouth disease in collaboration with the Botswana Vaccine Institute and Canadian Food Inspection Agency. The existing diagnostic methods required highly trained laboratory personnel and special equipment, which caused delays in the implementation of control procedures; whereas the kit developed in Botswana allows for on-site diagnosis to be made.[176]
The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) (MeerKAT) will consist of thousands of dishes and antennas spread over large distances linked together to form one giant telescope. Additional dishes will be located in eight other African countries Botswana among them. Botswana was selected to participate because of its ideal location in the southern hemisphere and environment, which could enable easier data collection from the universe. Botswana government has built SKA precursor telescope at Kgale View, called the African Very Long Base Line Interferometry Network (AVN) & sent student on Astronomy scholarships.[177]
Botswana launched its own three-year programme to build & launch a Micro Satellite (CubeSat) Botswana Satellite Technology (Sat-1 Project) in Gaborone on 18 December 2020. The development of the satellite will be led by Botswana International University of Science and Technology (BIUST) with technical support from University of Oulu in Finland and Loon, a giant leap forward in the realisation of Botswana's ambition to become a technologically driven economy. The satellite, which will be used for earth observation, will generate data for smart farming and real-time virtual tourism. Furthermore, it will help us predict and forecast harvest time through the use of robotics and automated technology.[178][179]
In the
On 19 November 2021 scientists at the Botswana Harvard HIV Reference Laboratory (BHHRL) first discovered the variant Omicron subsequently designated B.1.1.529, and then named "Omicron" becoming the first country in the world to discover the variant. Since early 2021, they have genome-sequenced some 2,300 positive SARS-CoV-2 virus samples. According to Dr Gaseitsiwe, Botswana's genome sequence submissions to GISAID are among the highest in the African region on a per capita basis, on a par with its well-resourced neighbour South Africa. Botswana Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership (BHP) was built in 2003, two years after the umbrella organisation opened the BHHRL, its purpose-built HIV research lab and one of the first on the continent.[183]
Infrastructure
Botswana has 971 kilometres (603 mi) of railway lines, 18,482 kilometres (11,484 mi) of roads, and 92 airports, of which 12 have paved runways. The paved road network has almost entirely been constructed since independence in 1966. The national airline is Air Botswana, which flies domestically and to other countries in Africa. Botswana Railways is the national railway company, which forms a crucial link in the Southern African regional railway system. Botswana Railways offers rail-based transport facilities for moving a range of commodities for the mining sector and primary industries, as well as passenger-train services and dry ports.[184][185]
In terms of power infrastructure in Botswana, the country produces coal for electricity and oil is imported into the country. Recently, the country has taken a large interest in renewable energy sources and has completed a comprehensive strategy that will attract investors in the wind, solar and biomass renewable energy industries. Botswana's power stations include
Health
Botswana's healthcare system has been steadily improving and expanding its infrastructure to become more accessible. The country's position as an upper middle-income country has allowed them to make strides in universal healthcare access for much of Botswana's population. The majority of the Botswana's 2.3 million inhabitants now live within five kilometres of a healthcare facility.[188] As a result, the infant mortality and maternal mortality rates have been on a steady decline.[189] The country's improving healthcare infrastructure has also been reflected in an increase of the average life expectancy from birth, with nearly all births occurring in healthcare facilities.[188]
Access to healthcare has not alleviated all of the country's healthcare concerns because, like many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Botswana is still battling high rates of HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases. In 2013, about 25% of the population was infected with HIV/AIDS.[190] Botswana is also grappling with high rates of malnutrition among children under the age of 5 which has led to other health concerns such as diarrhea and stunted growth.[191]Health industry
The Ministry of Health
The Cancer Association of Botswana is a voluntary non-governmental organisation. The association is a member of the Union for International Cancer Control. The Association supplements existing services through provision of cancer prevention and health awareness programs, facilitating access to health services for cancer patients and offering support and counselling to those affected.[194]
HIV/AIDS epidemic
Like elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa, the
The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Botswana was estimated at 25.4% for adults aged 15–49 in 2009 and 21.9% in 2013,
With a nationwide Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission program, Botswana has reduced HIV transmission from infected mothers to their children from about 40% to just 4%. Under the leadership of
Tourism
The Botswana Tourism Organisation
- Botswana National Museum in Gaborone
- Kgosi Bathoen II (Segopotso) Museum in Kanye
- Kgosi Sechele I Museum in Molepolole
- Khama III Memorial Museum in Serowe
- Nhabe Museum in Maun
- Phuthadikobo Museum in Mochudi
- Supa Ngwano Museum Centre in Francistown
See also
Notes
References
Citations
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- ^ Lion Park Resort Archived 8 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Lionpark.co.bw (7 February 2013). Retrieved on 19 May 2017.
- ^ (BGU). Botswana Golf Union. Retrieved on 19 May 2017.
Bibliography
- Hillbom, Ellen; Bolt, Jutta (2018). Botswana – A Modern Economic History. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-319-73144-5.
- Leith, J. Clark (2005). Why Botswana Prospered. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2820-2.
General sources
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from UNESCO Science Report: Towards 2030, 546–547, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing.
Further reading
- Charles, Thalefang (2016). Botswana's Top50 Ultimate Experiences. Mmegi Publishing House. ISBN 9789996845413.
- Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (11 July 2001). "An African Success Story: Botswana". Archived from the original on 18 July 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2018 – via mit.edu.
- Cohen, Dennis L (1979). "The Botswana Political Elite: Evidence from the 1974 General Election". Journal of Southern African Affairs. 4: 347–370.
- Colclough, Christopher and Stephen McCarthy. The Political Economy of Botswana: A Study of Growth and Income Distribution (Oxford University Press, 1980)
- Cunningham, A.B.; Milton, S.J. (1987). "Effects of basket-weaving industry on mokola palm and dye plants in northwestern Botswana". Economic Botany. 41 (3). JSTOR 4254989.
- Denbow, James & Thebe, Phenyo C. (2006). Culture and Customs of Botswana. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33178-7.
- Edge, Wayne A. and Mogopodi H. Lekorwe eds. Botswana: Politics and Society (Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik, 1998)
- Good, Kenneth (1992). "Interpreting the Exceptionality of Botswana". Journal of Modern African Studies. 30: 69–95. S2CID 154542272.
- Good, Kenneth (September 1994). "Corruption and Mismanagement in Botswana: A Best-Case Example?" (PDF). Journal of Modern African Studies. 32 (3): 499–521. S2CID 153626418. Archived from the original(PDF) on 3 April 2018. Retrieved 13 July 2018 – via harvard.edu.
- Tlou, Thomas, and Alec C. Campbell. History of Botswana (Macmillan Botswana, 1984)
External links
- Botswana. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Botswana from UCB LibrariesGovPubs
- Botswana at Curlie
- Botswana from the BBC News
- Wikimedia Atlas of Botswana
- Geographic data related to Botswana at OpenStreetMap
- Key Development Forecasts for Botswana from International Futures
- Government Directory for Botswana