Republic of Florence

Coordinates: 43°46′10″N 11°15′22″E / 43.76944°N 11.25611°E / 43.76944; 11.25611
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Republic of Florence
Repubblica Fiorentina
1115–1569
Flag of Florence
Top: State flag
Bottom: Civil flag adopted by Guelphs in 1251
Arms used by Ghibellines until 1251 Arms adopted by Guelphs in 1251 of Florence
Arms used by Ghibellines until 1251
Arms of Florence after 1251
Arms adopted by Guelphs in 1251
Giano della Bella (first)
• 1434–1464
Cosimo de' Medici (first de facto Lord of Florence)
• 1530–1532
Alessandro de' Medici (last)
Alessandro
• 1537–1569
Cosimo I
LegislaturePriorato delle Arti
• Upper house
Council of Ancients
• Lower house
Council of Consuls
History 
• First established
1115
• Marquisate restored by Imperial force
1185–1197
1378
• Incorporation of Pisa
1406
• Founding of the
House of Medici
1434
• Title of Duke of the Florentine Republic created
1532
• Occupation of Siena
1555
• Elevated to Grand Duchy of Tuscany
1569
Currency
Florin
(from 1252)
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
March of Tuscany
Commune of Arezzo
Republic of Pisa
Commune of Pistoia
Holy Roman Empire
Duchy of Florence
Today part ofItaly

The Republic of Florence (

Florentine guild
members.

During the Republic's history, Florence was an important cultural, economic, political and artistic force in Europe. Its coin, the florin, was the dominant trade coin of Western Europe for large scale transactions and became widely imitated throughout the continent.[4][5] During the Republican period, Florence was also the birthplace of the Renaissance, which is considered a fervent period of European cultural, artistic, political and economic "rebirth".[6]

The republic had a checkered history of coups and countercoups against various factions. The Medici faction gained governance of the city in 1434 under Cosimo de' Medici. The Medici kept control of Florence until 1494. Giovanni de' Medici, who later became Pope Leo X, reconquered the republic in 1512.

Florence repudiated Medici authority for a second time in 1527, during the

Alessandro de' Medici as the first "Duke of the Florentine Republic", thereby transforming the Republic into a hereditary monarchy.[7][8]

The second Duke,

grand duke of Tuscany. The Medici ruled the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
until 1737.

Background

Main article:
Marquisate of Tuscany
Italy in 1084, showing the Marquisate of Tuscany

The city of Florence was established in 59 BC by

Marquisate of Tuscany. After Margravine Matilda of Tuscany died in 1115, the city did not submit readily to her successor, Rabodo
(r. 1116–1119), who was killed in a dispute with the city.

It is not known precisely when Florence formed its own republican/oligarchical government independent of the marquisate, although the death of Rabodo in 1119 should be a turning point. The first official mention of the Florentine republic was in 1138, when several cities around Tuscany formed a league against the then-margrave of Tuscany, Duke

Henry X of Bavaria. The country was nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire.[3]

According to a study carried out by Enrico Faini of the

Sacchetti; Scolari; Uberti; and Visdomini.[9]

History

Main article: History of Florence

12th century

The newly independent Florence prospered in the 12th century through extensive trade with foreign countries. This, in turn, provided a platform for the demographic growth of the city, which mirrored the rate of construction of churches and

Emperor Henry VI died in 1197.[3]

13th century

Florence's population continued to grow into the 13th century, reaching 30,000 inhabitants. As has been said, the extra inhabitants supported the city's trade and vice versa. Several new bridges and churches were built, most prominently the cathedral of

Gothic Architecture. Politically, Florence was barely able to maintain peace between its competing factions. The precarious peace that existed at the beginning of the century was destroyed in 1216 when two factions, known as the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, began to war. The Ghibellines were supporters of the noble rulers of Florence, whereas the Guelphs were populists
.

The Ghibellines, who had ruled the city under

Clement IV
, who openly favoured the Guelphs, and restored them to power.

The Florentine economy reached a zenith in the latter half of the 13th century, and its success was reflected by the building of the famed

townhouses built by the ever prospering merchant class.[3] In 1298, the Bonsignori family of Siena, one of the leading banking families of Europe, went bankrupt, and the city of Siena lost its status as the most prominent banking center of Europe to Florence.[12]

14th century

In 1304, the war between the Ghibellines and the Guelphs led to a great fire that destroyed much of the city. Napier gives the following account:

Battles first began between the Cerchi and Giugni at their houses in the Via del Garbo; they fought day and night, and with the aid of the Cavalcanti and Antellesi the former subdued all that quarter: a thousand rural adherents strengthened their bands, and that day might have seen the Neri's destruction if an unforeseen disaster had not turned the scale. A certain dissolute priest, called Neri Abati, prior of San Piero Scheraggio, false to his family and in concert with the Black chiefs, consented to set fire to the dwellings of his own kinsmen in Orto-san-Michele; the flames, assisted by faction, spread rapidly over the richest and most crowded part of Florence: shops, warehouses, towers, private dwellings and palaces, from the old to the new market-place, from Vacchereccia to Porta Santa Maria and the Ponte Vecchio, all was one broad sheet of fire: more than nineteen hundred houses were consumed; plunder and devastation revelled unchecked amongst the flames, whole races were reduced in one moment to beggary, and vast magazines of the richest merchandise were destroyed. The Cavalcanti, one of the most opulent families in Florence, beheld their whole property consumed, and lost all courage; they made no attempt to save it, and, after almost gaining possession of the city, were finally overcome by the opposite faction.

— Henry Edward Napier, Florentine History, I. 394
Front and back of a Florentine florin

The

golden florin of the Republic of Florence was the first European gold coin struck in sufficient quantities to play a significant commercial role since the 7th century. As many Florentine banks were international companies with branches across Europe, the florin quickly became the dominant trade coin of Western Europe for large scale transactions, replacing silver bars in multiples of the mark
.

In fact, with the collapse of the Bonsignori family, several new banking families sprang up in Florence: the

Acciaioli.[12]
The friction between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines did not cease, authority still passed between the two frequently.

Florence's reign as the foremost banking city of Europe did not last long; the aforesaid families were bankrupt in 1340, not because of

Boccaccio. They were Europe's first vernacular writers, choosing the Tuscan dialect of Italian (which, as a result, evolved into the standard Italian language) over Latin.[13]

Florence was hit hard by the Black Death. Having originated in the Orient, the plague arrived in Messina in 1347. The plague devastated Europe, robbing it of an estimated one-third of its population.[14] This, combined with the economic downturn, took its toll on the city-state. The ensuing collapse of the feudal system changed the social composition of Europe forever; it was one of the first steps out of the Middle Ages.

The growth of Florence from 1300 to 1500

The

Ciompi revolt, as it is known, established a revolutionary commune. In 1382 the wealthier classes crushed the seeds of rebellion.[15]

The famous Medici bank was established by

Ferdinando II de'Medici in the 17th century.[17]
But, for now, Giovanni's bank flourished.

Beginning in 1389, Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan expanded his dominion into the Veneto, Piedmont, Emilia and Tuscany. During this period Florence, under the leadership of Maso degli Albizzi and Niccolò da Uzzano was involved in three wars with Milan (1390–92, 1397–98, 1400–02). The Florentine army, commanded by John Hawkwood, contained the Milanese during the first war.[18] The second war started in March 1397. Milanese troops devastated the Florentine contado, but were checked in August of that year.

The war expenses exceeded one million florins and necessitated tax raises and forced loans. A peace agreement in May 1398 was brokered by Venice, but left the struggle unresolved.

Alberti.[19]

The republic bankrolled the emperor-elect

Rupert
. However, he was defeated by the Milanese in the fall of 1401. Visconti then turned to Bologna. On 26 June 1402, combined Bolognese-Florentine forces were routed at Casalecchio, near Bologna, which was taken on the 30th. The road to Tuscany was open. However, Florence was saved after an outbreak of plague had spread from Tuscany to Emilia and Lombardy: Gian Galeazzo died from it on 3 September 1402.[18][19]

15th century

Further information: List of heads of state of Florence
The Italian Peninsula in 1499

The Visconti domains were divided between three heirs. Gabriele Maria Visconti sold Pisa to the Republic of Florence for 200,000 florins. Since the Pisans did not intend to voluntarily submit to their long-time rivals, the army under Maso degli Albizzi took Pisa on 9 October 1406 after a long siege, that was accompanied by numerous atrocities.[18]

The state authorities had been approached by the Duchy of Milan in 1422, with a treaty, that prohibited Florence's interference with Milan's impending war with the Republic of Genoa.[20] Florence obliged, but Milan disregarded its own treaty and occupied a Florentine border town. The conservative government wanted war, while the people bemoaned such a stance as they would be subject to enormous tax increases. The republic went to war with Milan, and won, upon the Republic of Venice's entry on their side. The war was concluded in 1427, and the Visconti of Milan were forced to sign an unfavourable treaty.

The debt incurred during the war was gargantuan, approximately 4,200,000 florins.

Santa Maria del Fiore
, which astounded contemporaries and modern observers alike.

Medicis' rule

Main article: House of Medici
Coat of arms of the House of Medici

The son of Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, Cosimo de' Medici succeeded his father as the head of the Medici Bank. He played a prominent role in the government of Florence until his exile in 1433, after a disastrous war with Tuscany's neighbour, the Republic of Lucca.[21] Cosimo's exile in Venice lasted for less than a year, when the people of Florence overturned Cosimo's exile in a democratic vote. Cosimo returned to the acclaim of his people and the banishment of the Albizzi family, who had exiled him.

Cosimo de' Medici
Main article: Cosimo de' Medici

The Renaissance began during Cosimo's de facto rule of Florence, the seeds of which had arguably been laid before

Niccolò Niccoli was the leading Florence humanist scholar of the time. He appointed the first Professor of Greek, Manuel Chrysoloras (the founder of Hellenic studies in Italy), at the University of Florence in 1397.[22] Niccoli was a keen collector of ancient manuscripts, which he bequeathed to Cosimo upon his death in 1437.[23] Poggio Bracciolini succeeded Niccoli as the principal humanist of Florence. Bracciolini was born Arezzo in 1380. He toured Europe, searching for more ancient Greco-Roman manuscripts for Niccoli. Unlike his employer, Bracciolini also authored his own works. He was made the Chancellor of Florence shortly before his death, by Cosimo, who was his best friend.[24]

Cosimo de' Medici, founder of the House of Medici

Florence hosted the Great Ecumenical Council in 1439; this council was launched in an attempt to reconcile the Byzantine

Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire) John VIII Palaiologos. John VIII's empire was slowly being devoured by the Ottoman Turks.[25]The council was a huge boost to Florence's international prestige. The council deliberated until July 1439. Both parties had reached a compromise, and the Pope agreed to militarily aid the Byzantine Emperor. However, upon John VIII's homecoming to Constantinople, the Greeks rejected the compromise, leading to riots throughout what remained of the Byzantine Empire. John VIII was forced to repudiate the agreement with the Roman church to appease the rioters. As a result, no Western aid was forthcoming and the Byzantine Empire's fate was sealed. Fourteen years later in 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottomans.[26]

Cosimo's fervent patronage transformed Florence into the epitome of a Renaissance city. He employed

Brunelleschi, and Michelozzo. All these artistic commissions cost Cosimo over 600,000 florins.[27]

Foreign relations, both as a backdrop to Cosimo's rise to power and during first twenty years of his rule, were dominated by the

Peace of Lodi recognized Venetian and Florentine territorial gains and the legitimacy of the Sforza rule in Milan.[29]
The Milan-Florence alliance played a major role in stabilizing the peninsula for the next 40 years.

The political crisis of 1458 was the first serious challenge to the Medici rule. The cost of wars had been borne by the great families of Florence, and disproportionately so by Medici's opponents. A number of them (Serragli, Baroncelli, Mancini, Vespucci, Gianni) were practically ruined and had to sell their properties, and those were acquired by Medici's partisans at bargain prices. The opposition used partial relaxation of Medici control of the republic institutions[30] to demand political reforms, freedom of speech in the councils and a greater share in the decision-making. Medici's party response was to use threats of force from private armies and Milanese troops and arranging a popular assembly dominated by Cosimo's supporters. It exiled the opponents of the regime and introduced the open vote in councils, "in order to unmask the anti-Medician rebels".[29][31]

From 1458 Cosimo withdrew from any official public role, but his control of Florence was greater than ever. In the spring of 1459 he entertained the new pope

Council of Mantua to declare a crusade against the Ottomans, and Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Francesco's son, who was to escort the pope from Florence to Mantua. In his memoirs, Pius said that Cosimo "was considered the arbiter of war and peace, the regulator of law; less a citizen than master of his city. Political councils were held in his home; the magistrates he chose were elected; he was king in all but name and legal status…. Some asserted that his tyranny was intolerable."[32]

Piero de' Medici
Main article: Piero di Cosimo de' Medici

Piero the Gouty was the eldest son of Cosimo. Piero, as his sobriquet the gouty implies, suffered from

Lorenzo the Magnificent was Piero's eldest son by his wife Lucrezia Tornabuoni.[33] Piero's reign furthered the always fractious political divisions of Florence when he had called up huge debts owed to the Medici Bank. These debts were owed primarily by a Florentine nobleman, Luca Pitti.[34] Lucca called for an armed insurrection against Piero, but a co-conspirator rebutted this.[35] Duke Francesco Sforza of Milan died in 1466, and his son Galeazzo Maria Sforza
became the new Milanese duke. With the death of Francesco Sforza, Florence lost a valuable ally among the other Italian states.

In August 1466, the conspirators acted. They received support from the

Federigo da Montefeltro, Lord of Urbino, to command his mercenaries. An inconclusive battle ensued, with the Venetians forces retreating.[38]
In the winter of 1469 Piero died.

Lorenzo de' Medici
Main article: Lorenzo de' Medici
Lorenzo de' Medici

Lorenzo succeeded his father, Piero. Lorenzo, as heir, was accordingly groomed by his father to rule over Florence.

Lorenzo was the greatest artistic patron of the Renaissance.

Leo X and his eventual successor in Florence, Piero the Unfortunate
.

Lorenzo's brother

Sixtus IV (who had also supported the conspiracy against the Medicis). Sixtus IV was "outraged" and excommunicated everyone in Florence. Sixtus sent a papal delegation to Florence to arrest Lorenzo.[40] The people of Florence were obviously enraged by the Pope's actions, and the local clergy too. The populace refused to resign Lorenzo to the papal delegation. A war followed, which lasted for two years until Lorenzo tactfully went about diplomatically securing a peace.[41]
Lorenzo died in 1492 and was succeeded by his son Piero.

Piero 'the Unfortunate'
Main article: Piero the Unfortunate

Piero ruled Florence for a mere two years.[42] Charles VIII of France invaded Italy in September 1494. He demanded passage through Florence to Naples, where he intended to secure the throne for himself. Piero met Charles at the fringes of Florence to try and negotiate. Piero capitulated to all Charles' demands, and upon arriving back in the city in November, he was branded as a traitor. He was forced to flee the republic with his family.

Savonarola

Main article: Girolamo Savonarola
Girolamo Savonarola

After the fall of the Medici,

Bonfire of the Vanities", where he ordered all "vanities" to be gathered and burned. These included wigs, perfume, paintings, and ancient pagan manuscripts.[46]
Savonarola's rule collapsed a year later. He was excommunicated by Pope
Alexander VI in late 1497. In the same year, Florence embarked on a war with Pisa, which had been de facto independent since Charles VIII's invasion three years before. The endeavour failed miserably, and this led to food shortages. That, in turn, led to a few isolated cases of the plague. The people blamed Savonarola for their woes, and he was tortured and executed in the Piazza della Signoria by being burned at the stake by Florentine authorities, in May 1498.[47]

16th century

Piero Soderini

Main article: Piero Soderini

In 1502, the Florentines chose Piero Soderini as their first ruler for life.[48] Soderini succeeded where Savonarola had failed, when the Secretary of War, Niccolò Machiavelli, recaptured Pisa in 1509. It was at this time that Machiavelli introduced a standing army in Florence, replacing the traditional use of hired mercenaries.[43]

Giovanni de' Medici

Main article: Pope Leo X

Soderini was repudiated in September 1512, when

Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici captured Florence with Papal troops during the War of the League of Cambrai. The Medici rule of Florence was thus restored.[49]

Holy Roman Emperor Charles V

Soon after retaking Florence, Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici was recalled to Rome. Pope

Lorenzo II de' Medici.[51]

Lorenzo II's government proved unpopular in Florence.[51] According to U.S. President and historian John Adams, "at this time the citizens of the state of Florence were in secret very discontented, because the Duke Lorenzo, desiring to reduce the government to the form of a principality, appeared to disdain to consult any longer with the magistrates and his fellow-citizens as he used to do, and gave audiences very seldom, and with much impatience; he attended less to the business of the city, and caused all public affairs to be managed by Messer Goro da Pistoia, his secretary."[51] In 1519, Lorenzo died from syphilis, shortly before his wife gave birth to Catherine de' Medici, the future Queen of France.[52]

Giulio de' Medici

Main article: Pope Clement VII
Leo X (center) and Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (left)

Following the death of Lorenzo II,

President John Adams later characterized his administration of Florence as "very successful and frugal."[51] Adams chronicles Cardinal Giulio as having "reduced the business of the magistrates, elections, customs of office, and the mode of expenditure of public money, in such a manner that it produced a great and universal joy among the citizens."[51]

On the death of Pope Leo X in 1521, Adams writes there was a "ready inclination in all of the principal citizens [of Florence], and a universal desire among the people, to maintain the state in the hands of the Cardinal de' Medici; and all this felicity arose from his good government, which since the death of the Duke Lorenzo, had been universally agreeable."[51]

When Cardinal Giulio was elected Pope Clement VII, he appointed

Cardinal Passerini. [53] Ippolito was the son of Giuliano de' Medici, while Alessandro was allegedly the son of Clement VII. Cardinal Passerini's regency government proved highly unpopular.[54]

In May 1527, Rome was sacked by the Holy Roman Empire. The city was destroyed, and Pope Clement VII was imprisoned. During the tumult, a faction of Republicans drove out the Medici from Florence. A new wave of Puritanism swept through the city. Many new restricting fundamentalist laws were passed.[55]

In 1529, Clement VII signed the Treaty of Barcelona with

a protracted siege.[56]

"Dukes of the Republic of Florence"

Main article: Duchy of Florence

Following the Republic's surrender in the Siege of Florence, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor issued a proclamation explicitly stating that he and he alone could determine the government of Florence.[57] On 12 August 1530, the Emperor created the Medici hereditary rulers (capo) of the Republic of Florence.[58] The title "Duke of the Florentine Republic" was chosen because it would bolster Medici power in the region.

Alessandro de' Medici

Alessandro de' Medici

Alessandro de' Medici[a] to be the ruler of Florence, but also wanted to give the impression that the Florentines had democratically chosen Alessandro as their ruler.[58]
Even after Alessandro's accession in 1530 (he reigned as Duke of the Florentine Republic from 1532 on), Imperial troops remained stationed in Florence. In 1535, several prominent Florentine families, including the
Pazzi Conspiracy) dispatched a delegation under Ippolito de' Medici, asking Charles V to depose Alessandro. Much to their dismay, the Emperor rejected their appeal. Charles had no intention of deposing Alessandro, who was married to Charles' daughter Margaret of Parma
.

Alessandro continued to rule Florence for another two years until he was murdered on 1 January 1537 by his distant relative Lorenzino de' Medici.

Cosimo I de' Medici

Cosimo I de' Medici

As Alessandro left no legitimate issue, the question of succession was open. Florentine authorities selected

Cosimo I in 1537.[60] At the news of this, the exiled Strozzi family invaded and tried to depose Cosimo, but were defeated at Montemurlo.[61]
Cosimo completely overhauled the bureaucracy and administration of Florence. In 1542, the Imperial troops stationed in Florence by Charles V were withdrawn.

In 1548, Cosimo was given a part of the

Vasari to build the Uffizi
, as offices for the Medici bank, continuing the Medici tradition of patronage of the arts.

End of the Republic

In 1569, Cosimo was elevated to the rank of the

Pius V. This marks the end of the Florence Republic, and the beginning of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany
.

Medici rule continued into the Grand Duchy of Tuscany until the family became extinct in 1737.

Administrations of the Republic

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Florence was governed by a council called the signoria, which consisted of nine men. The head of the signoria was the gonfaloniere, who was chosen every two months in a lottery, as was his signoria. To be eligible, one had to have sound finances, no arrears or bankruptcies, he had to be older than thirty, had to be a member of Florence's seven main guilds (merchant traders, bankers, two clothe guilds, and judges). The lottery was often pre-determined, and the results were usually favourable to influential families.[64] The roster of names in the lottery were replaced every five years.[65]

The main organs of government were known as the tre maggiori. They were: the twelve good men, the standard bearers of the gonfaloniere, and the signoria. The first two debated and ratified proposed legislation, but could not introduce it. The gonfaloniere's initial two month-term in office was expanded upon the fall of Savonarola in 1498, to life, much like that of the Venetian doge.[66] The signoria held meetings each day in the Palazzo della Signoria. Various committees controlled particular aspects of government, e.g. the Committee of War. For administrative purposes, Florence was divided into four districts, which were divided into four sub-districts. The main purpose of these counties was to ease the gathering of local militias.[67]

To hold an elective office, one had to be of a family that had previously held office.[48] The Medici family effectively ruled Florence on a hereditary basis, from 1434 to 1494, and 1512–1527.

After

Alessandro de' Medici was installed as the "Duke of the Florentine Republic" in 1530, in April 1532, Pope Clement VII convinced the Balía, Florence's ruling commission, to draw up a new constitution, which formally created a hereditary monarchy. It abolished the age-old signoria (elective government) and the office of gonfaloniere
(titular head-of-state elected for a two-month term) and replaced it with three institutions:

See also

Notes

  1. Lorenzo II, Duke of Urbino, though some historians suggest that Clement himself was the father.[59]

References

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  2. ^ Najemy (2006).
  3. ^ a b c d "History of Florence". Aboutflorence.com. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2009.
  4. ^ "Florence – Climate". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 17 April 2015. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
  5. ^ "Fiorino". Retrieved 15 March 2023.
  6. ^ "Renaissance". History.com. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 19 October 2021.
  7. ^ a b Goudriaan (2018), pp. 8–9.
  8. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 321.
  9. ^ See: Jean-Claude Maire Vigueur and Andrea Zorzi ("Il gruppo dirigente fiorentino nell'età consolare" n "Archivio Storico", CLXII (2004), p. 210)
  10. ^ "Attractions in San Gimignano, Italy". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
  11. ^ Bartlett, Kenneth (2005). "Chapter 7". The Italian Renaissance. Vol. II. p. 37.
  12. ^ a b Strathern (2007), p. 18.
  13. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 19.
  14. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 20.
  15. ^ Strathern (2007), pp. 20–21.
  16. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 26.
  17. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 301.
  18. ^ a b c Brucker, p. 252
  19. ^ a b c Najemy (2006), pp. 193–194.
  20. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 41.
  21. ^ a b Strathern (2007), p. 42.
  22. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 83.
  23. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 84.
  24. ^ Strathern (2007), pp. 88–89.
  25. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 90.
  26. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 94.
  27. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 106.
  28. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 117.
  29. ^ a b Brucker, p. 253
  30. ^ Najemy (2006), p. 293.
  31. ^ Najemy (2006), pp. 293–296.
  32. ^ Najemy (2006), pp. 296–298.
  33. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 127.
  34. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 130.
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  36. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 133.
  37. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 134.
  38. ^ Strathern (2007), pp. 134–135.
  39. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 145.
  40. ^ Strathern (2007), pp. 161–165.
  41. ^ Strathern (2007), pp. 166–168.
  42. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 213.
  43. ^ a b Strathern (2007), p. 257.
  44. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 220.
  45. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 223.
  46. ^ "Covenant Worldwide – Ancient & Medieval Church History". Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
  47. ^ Strathern (2007), pp. 226–269.
  48. ^ a b Strathern (2007), p. 249.
  49. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 261.
  50. ^ Strathern (2007), pp. 266–268.
  51. ^ a b c d e f "The Works of John Adams, vol. 5 (Defence of the Constitutions Vols. II and III)". Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2020 – via Online Library of Liberty.
  52. ^ "Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici, duca di Urbino | Italian ruler". Encyclopædia Britannia. Archived from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  53. ^ Strathern (2007), p. 292.
  54. ^ "Alessandro | duke of Florence". Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
  55. ^ Strathern (2007), pp. 308–309.
  56. ^ Strathern (2007), pp. 311–315.
  57. ^ Hale (2001), p. 118.
  58. ^ a b Hale (2001), p. 119.
  59. ^ Fletcher (2016), pp. 16, 280–281.
  60. ^ Langdon (2006), p. 34.
  61. ^ Landon (2013), p. 74.
  62. ^ Hattendorf & Unger (2003), p. 172.
  63. ^ a b van Veen (2013), p. 190.
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  65. ^ Hale (2001), pp. 17–18.
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  67. ^ Hale (2001), pp. 15–16.
  68. ^ Hale (2001), p. 121.

Sources

External links

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