Novgorod Republic
Lord's Novgorod the Great Господинъ Великiй Новгородъ | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1136–1478 | |||||||||||||
Capital | Novgorod | ||||||||||||
Common languages | Church Slavonic (literary) Old Novgorod dialect[a] | ||||||||||||
Religion | Russian Orthodoxy | ||||||||||||
Demonym(s) | Novgorodian | ||||||||||||
Government | Mixed republic | ||||||||||||
Prince | |||||||||||||
• 1136–1138 (first) | Sviatoslav Olgovich | ||||||||||||
• 1462–1478 (last) | Ivan III | ||||||||||||
Legislature | Veche Council of Lords | ||||||||||||
History | |||||||||||||
• Established | 1136 | ||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1478 | ||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||
Today part of | Russia |
History of Russia |
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Russia portal |
The Novgorod Republic (Russian: Новгородская республика, romanized: Novgorodskaya respublika) was a medieval state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries in northern Russia, stretching from the Gulf of Finland in the west to the northern Ural Mountains in the east. Its capital was the city of Novgorod. The republic prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League, and its people were much influenced by the culture of the Byzantines,[3] with the Novgorod school of icon painting producing many fine works.[4]
Novgorod won its independence in 1136 after the Novgorodians deposed their
By the 14th century, the
Name
The state was called Novgorod and Great Novgorod (Russian: Великий Новгород, romanized: Velikiy Novgorod) with the form Sovereign Lord Novgorod the Great (Russian: Государь Господин Великий Новгород, romanized: Gosudar' Gospodin Velikiy Novgorod) becoming common in the 15th century.[c] Novgorod Land and Novgorod volost usually referred to the land belonging to Novgorod. Novgorod Republic (Russian: Новгородская республика, romanized: Novgorodskaya respublika) itself is a much later term,[19] although the polity was described as a republic as early as in the beginning of the 16th century.[20][21] Soviet historians frequently used the terms Novgorod Feudal Republic and Novgorod Boyar Republic.[22]
History
Origins
The area of Novgorod was populated by various East Slavic tribes that were constantly at war with one another for supremacy. However, these tribes came together during the beginning of the 9th century to try to form a negotiated settlement to end military aggression amongst each other.[23] The Novgorod First Chronicle, a collection of writings depicting the history of Novgorod from 1016 to 1471, states that these tribes wanted to "seek a prince who may rule over us and judge us according to law".[24] According to tradition, Novgorod was where the Varangians were "invited" to rule over what is now northwestern Russia in 862 and the birthplace of its monarchy.[25][26] The "Russian-Scandinavian cultural symbiosis" became prevalent following the establishment of the Rus' state.[27]
The Novgorodians were the first to reach the regions between the Arctic Ocean and Lake Onega. Even though there is no definitive account of the precise timing of their arrival at the northern rivers that flowed into the Arctic, there are chronicles which mention that one expedition reached the Pechora River in 1032, and trading was established as early as 1096 with the Yugra tribes.[28] The Chronicle mentions Novgorodians traveling "beyond the portage" as early as 1079.[29] They also traveled to Pomorye, the "summer [southern] coast" of the "Cold [White] Sea" in search of furs as well as fish and salt.[29] Historian George Lantzeff remarked that "in the beginning of Russian history, two Russian principalities, Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal, were engaged in exploring, conquering, exploiting, and colonizing the area west of the Ural Mountains".[29] From the late 11th century, the Novgorodians asserted greater control over the determination of their rules and rejected a politically dependent relationship to Kiev.[30]
Chronicles state that the Novgorodians paid tribute to the
Republican period
In 1136, the Novgorodians dismissed their prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, and over the next century and half, were able to invite in and dismiss a number of princes. However, these invitations or dismissals were often based on who was the dominant prince in Rus' at the time, and not on any independent thinking on the part of Novgorod.[31]
According to Russian sources,
The city of
In the 12th to 15th centuries, the Novgorod Republic expanded east and northeast. The Novgorodians explored the areas around
Fall of the republic
As Moscow grew in strength, however, the Muscovite princes became a serious threat to Novgorod.
Novgorod supported the rebellious Dmitry Shemyaka against Vasily II in the Muscovite War of Succession. After Vasily II returned to throne, a war between Moscow and Novgorod took place, which ended after the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy was signed in 1456. The treaty marked the beginning of the fall of Novgorod's independence as it lost certain freedoms.[citation needed] Moscow began to gradually seize land in the northern territories that were formerly under Novgorod's control for the next decade and half due to a desire for luxury furs in the area.[43] This led to a struggle with Novgorod for the Russian fur trade, and thus, an economic rivalry for fur, land and trade ports.[43]
Some Novgorodian boyars were opposed to Moscow as a result, while others pursued a pro-Muscovite policy in the hopes that good relations with Moscow would reduce disruption in Novgorod's trade; Novgorod was also dependent on the Russian lands to its southwest for important imports such as grain.[43] Some Novgorodians were also attracted to Moscow due to it being the center of Russian Orthodoxy as opposed to Lithuania, where Catholicism was dominant and its culture was being increasingly polonized, though some Novgorodian clergy adopted a pro-Lithuanian policy for political reasons due to fears that embracing the grand prince of Moscow would eventually lead to the end of Novgorod's independence.[43] Most Novgorodian boyars had hoped to maintain the republic's independence since if Novgorod were to be conquered, the boyars' wealth would flow to the grand prince and Muscovite boyars, and the Novgorodians would fall into decline; most of them also did not earn enough to pay for war.[44]
By 1470, with the pro-Lithuanian faction being dominant,
The Muscovite authorities saw Novgorod's behavior as a repudiation of the
Thus did Great Prince Ivan advance with all his host against his domain of Novgorod because of the rebellious spirit of its people, their pride and conversion to Latinism. With a great and overwhelming force did he occupy the entire territory of Novgorod from frontier to frontier, inflicting on every part of it the dread powers of his fire and sword.
Government
The
The veche tradition convinced Novgorodians that they had the right to be consulted on important issues, though in practice, the posadniki came from a few rich merchant families. In the early years of the republic, the prince and posadnik shared power until the prince's power was gradually restricted, while the archbishop of Novgorod increasingly played the role of head of state, particularly during times of feuds.[58] Just before 1300, a series of reforms further curtailed the prince's powers within the local administration while those of the archbishop rose. The Council of Lords (Russian: Совет господ, romanized: Sovet gospod) was also formed, and boyar families from each district were represented, typically by former posadniki, with each posadnik beginning to hold office for only one year. As feuds continued to grow, the structure was again changed so that each district had its own posadnik, with the number of posadniki increasing to 24 in 1423, though this failed to achieve stability, and feuds continued until the last days of independence.[58]
The Novgorod Judicial Charter, inherited from the earlier Russkaya Pravda, served as the legal code of the Novgorod Republic from 1440. The latest version was supplemented in 1471 under the auspices of Ivan III and his son Ivan Ivanovich.[59] The Novgorod Judicial Charter, along with the Pskov Judicial Charter, were later used for Ivan III's Sudebnik of 1497 which served as the legal code for the entire Russian state.[60]
Novgorod was called a republic by
Archbishop
Some scholars argue that the archbishop was the head of the
The executives of Novgorod, at least nominally, were always the princes of Novgorod, invited by Novgorodians from neighboring states, even though their power waned in the 13th and early 14th centuries.[69][70] It is unclear if the archbishop of Novgorod was the true head of state or chief executive of the Novgorod Republic, but in any case, he remained an important town official. In addition to overseeing the church in Novgorod, he headed embassies, oversaw certain court cases of a secular nature, and carried out other secular tasks. However, the archbishops appear to have worked with the boyars to reach a consensus and almost never acted alone. The archbishop was not appointed, but elected by Novgorodians, and approved by the metropolitan bishop of Russia.[69][71] The archbishops were probably the richest single land-owners in Novgorod, and they also made money off court fees, fees for the use of weights and measures in the marketplace, and through other means.[72][73]
Veche and posadnik
Another important executive was the posadnik of Novgorod, who chaired the veche, co-chaired courts together with the prince, oversaw tax collection and managed current affairs of the city. Most of the prince's major decisions had to be approved by the posadnik. In the mid-14th century, instead of one posadnik, the veche began electing six. These six posadniks kept their status for their lifetimes, and each year elected among themselves a stepennoy posadnik. Posadniks were almost invariably boyars – the city's highest aristocracy.[74] The precise makeup of the veche is also uncertain, although it appears to have comprised members of the urban population, as well as of the free rural population. Whether it was a democratic institution or one controlled by the boyars has been hotly debated. The posadniks, tysiatskys, and even the bishops and archbishops of Novgorod,[75] were often elected or at least approved by the veche.[76]
Tradespeople and craftsmen also participated in the political affairs of Novgorod. Traditional scholarship argues that they were organized into five kontsy ("ends" in Russian) – i.e., the boroughs of the city they lived in; each end was then organized by the streets in which they lived. The ends and streets often bore names indicating that certain trades were concentrated in certain parts of the city (there was a Carpenter's End and a Potters' End, for example). The merchants were organised into associations, of which the most famous were those of wax traders (called Ivan's Hundred) and of the merchants engaged in overseas trade.[77]
Like much of the rest of Novgorod's medieval history, the precise composition of these organizations is uncertain. It is quite possible that the "ends" and "streets" were simply neighborhood administrative groups rather than guilds or "unions". Street organizations were known to build churches in their neighborhoods and to have buried the dead of their neighborhoods during outbreaks of the plague, but beyond that their activities are uncertain.
"Streets" and "ends" may have taken part in political decision-making in Novgorod in support of certain boyar factions or to protect their interests. Merchant "elders" are also noted in treaties and other charters, but only about a hundred of these charters exist. A half dozen date from the 12th century, while most are from after 1262. Thus it is difficult to determine Novgorod's political structure due to the paucity of sources.[78]
Prince
The prince, while his status in Novgorod was not inheritable and his power was much reduced, remained an important figure in Novgorodian life. Of around 100 princes of Novgorod, many, if not most, were invited in or dismissed by the Novgorodians. At least some of them signed a contract called a ryad (Russian: ряд), which protected the interests of Novgorodian boyars and laid out the prince's rights and responsibilities. The ryads that have been preserved in archives describe the relationship of Novgorod with twelve invited princes: five of them from Tver, four from Moscow, and three from Lithuania.[79]
First and foremost among the prince's functions, he was a military leader. He also patronized churches in the city and held court, although it was often presided over by his
According to several ryads, the prince could not extradite or prosecute a Novgorodian outside of Novgorod Land.[81] The princes had two residences, one on the Marketplace (called Yaroslav's Court), and another in Rurikovo Gorodische (Рюриково городище) several miles south of the Trade Side of the city.
Administrative divisions
The administrative division of Novgorod Republic is not definitely known; the country was divided into several tysyachi (Russian: тысячи, lit. 'thousands') in the core lands of the country, and volosti (Russian: волости) in lands in the east and north that were being colonized or just paid tribute. The city of Novgorod and its vicinity, as well as a few other towns, were not part of any of those. Pskov achieved autonomy from Novgorod in the 13th century; its independence was confirmed by the Treaty of Bolotovo in 1348. Several other towns had special status as they were owned jointly by Novgorod and one of the neighbouring states.
Geography
The Novgorod Republic was the largest of the Rus' states in terms of area until it was surpassed by Moscow following its annexation of other independent principalities. The Novgorod Republic occupied the northwest and north of European Russia, as well as the eastern part of Finland. To the east, it was bordered by the Principality of Tver and to the west, it was bordered by Lithuania as well as various Baltic powers, including the Teutonic Order and the bishoprics of Dorpat and Courland as well as the Hanseatic cities of Riga and Reval.[82]
Economy
The economy of the Novgorod Republic included
The real wealth of Novgorod, however, came from the fur trade. Hanseatic merchants were particularly attracted to the Russian trade due to its vast resources of furs and beeswax, with Novgorod being the leading supplier of furs.
The amount of fur, especially squirrel and other relatively cheap furs, that Novgorod supplied to Hanseatic merchants was considerable. The Lübeck company of Wittenborg exported between 200,000 and 500,000 Lübeck marks from Novgorod to Livonia in the 1350s. Anna Khoroshkevich assumed that exports increased throughout the 14th century and was at its height in the beginning of the 15th century, but by the second half of the century, Novgorod suffered from the effects of exhaustion of its resources with hunting grounds moving considerably further north and Muscovite merchants accruing the main profit of the shift.[86]
In spite of unfavorable natural conditions, Novgorod's rural population was dependent upon agriculture and stock-rearing, while hunting and fishing were also important. The agricultural basis was also insecure, as the land passed almost fully into the hands of ruling boyars and clergy, with only a small area belonging to merchants. The peasants of Novgorod also paid dues to their lords in the products of agriculture, fishing, forestry, and stock-rearing.[83]
Foreign coins and silver were used as a currency before Novgorod started minting its own novgorodka coins in 1420.[87][88]
Society
More than half of all privately owned lands in Novgorod had been concentrated in the hands of some 30–40 noble boyar families by the 14th and 15th centuries. These vast
Some scholars argue that the feudal lords tried to legally tie down the peasants to their land. Certain categories of feudally dependent peasants, such as davniye lyudi (давние люди), polovniki (половники), poruchniki (поручники), and dolzhniki (должники), were deprived of the right to leave their masters. The boyars and monasteries also tried to restrict other categories of peasants from switching their feudal lords. However, until the late 16th century peasants could leave their land in the weeks preceding and coming after George's Day in Autumn.
Marxist scholars such as Aleksandr Khoroshev often spoke of a class struggle in Novgorod. There were some 80 major uprisings in the republic, which often turned into armed rebellions. The most notable among these took place in 1136, 1207, 1228–1229, 1270, 1418, and 1446–1447. The extent to which these were based on "class struggle" is unclear. Many were between various boyar factions or, if a revolt did involve the peasants or tradesmen against the boyars, it did not consist of the peasants wanting to overthrow the existing social order, but was more often than not a demand for better rule on the part of the ruling class. There did not seem to be a sense that the office of prince should be abolished or that the peasants should be allowed to run the city.
Throughout the republican period, the archbishop of Novgorod was the head of the Orthodox church in the city. The Finnic population of Novgorod Land underwent Christianization. The sect of the strigolniki spread to Novgorod from Pskov in the middle of the 14th century, with its members renouncing ecclesiastic hierarchy, monasticism and sacraments of priesthood, communion, repentance and baptism, before they disappeared by the early 15th century.[89] Another sect, known as the Heresy of the Judaizers by its opponents, appeared in Novgorod in the second half of the 15th century and subsequently enjoyed support at the court in Moscow,[90][91] before ultimately they were persecuted and several councils of the Russian Church condemned them.[92]
Military
Like other Russian states, the military of Novgorod consisted of a levy and the prince's retinue (druzhina).[93] While potentially all free Novgorodians could be mobilised, in reality the number of recruits depended on the level of danger faced by Novgorod. The professional formations included the retinues of the archbishop and prominent boyars, as well as the garrisons of fortresses.[94] Firearms were first mentioned in 1394,[95] and in the 15th century, fortress artillery was used,[96] and cannons were installed on ships.[97]
Foreign relations
During the era of
Livonian Order and Sweden
After the
Golden Horde
The Novgorod Republic was saved from the direct impact of the Mongol invasions as it was not conquered by the Mongols.[98] In 1259, Mongol tax-collectors and census-takers arrived in the city, leading to political disturbances and forcing Alexander Nevsky to punish a number of town officials (by cutting off their noses) for defying him as the grand prince of Vladimir (soon to be the khan's tax-collector in Russia) and his Mongol overlords.[99][100]
Culture
Art and iconography
The Republic of Novgorod was famous for its high level of culture in relation to other Russian duchies like Suzdal. A great majority of the most important Eastern artwork of the period came from this city. Novgorodians produced large quantities of art, more specifically, religious icons. This high level of artistic production was due to the flourishing economy. Not only would prominent boyar families commission the creation of icons, but artists also had the backing of wealthy merchants and members of the strong artisan class.[101] Icons became so prominent in Novgorod that by the end of the 13th century, a citizen did not have to be particularly rich to buy one; in fact, icons were often produced as exports as well as for churches and homes.[102] However, scholars today have managed to find and preserve only a small, random assortment of icons made from the 12th century to the 14th century in Novgorod.[102]
The icons that do remain show a mixture of a traditional Russian style,
Novgorod lost not only its political authority after 1478 but also its artistic authority, resulting in a more uniform method for iconography being established throughout Russia.[106] The Novgorod school of icon painting, derived from the Byzantine school, served as the basis for future Russian art with the Moscow school, which emerged in the 16th century and was later succeeded by the Stroganov school.[107]
Architecture and city layout
The Volkhov River divided the Republic of Novgorod into two-halves. The commercial side of the city, which contained the main market, rested on one side of the Volkhov. The Cathedral of St. Sophia and the ancient kremlin rested on the other side of the river.[108] The cathedral and kremlin were surrounded by a solid ring of city walls, which included a bell tower. Novgorod was filled with and surrounded by churches and monasteries.[109] The city was overcrowded because of its large population of 30,000 people. The wealthy (boyar families, artisans, and merchants) lived in large houses inside the city walls, and the poor used whatever space they could find.[108] The streets were paved with wood and were accompanied by a wooden water-pipe system, a Byzantine invention to protect against fire.[108]
The
Literature and literacy
Chronicles are the earliest kind of literature known to originate in Novgorod, the oldest one being the Novgorod First Chronicle. Other genres appear in the 14th and 15th centuries: travel diaries (such as the account of Stephen of Novgorod's travel to Constantinople for trade purposes), legends about local posadniks, saints and Novgorod's wars and victories.[116] The events of many bylinas – traditional Russian oral epic poems – take place in Novgorod. Their protagonists include a merchant and adventurer Sadko and daredevil Vasily Buslayev.
Scholars generally believe that the Republic of Novgorod had an unusually high level of literacy for the time period. Archeologists found over one thousand birch-bark texts, all dating from the 11th to the 15th centuries, in towns dating back to early Rus'. Roughly 950 of these texts were from Novgorod. Archeologists and scholars estimate that as much as 20,000 similar texts still remain in the ground and many more burned down during numerous fires.[117]
Novgorodian citizens from all class levels, from boyars to peasants and artisans to merchants, participated in writing these texts. Even women wrote a significant amount of the manuscripts.[117] This collection of birch-bark texts consists of religious documents, writings from the city's archbishops, business messages from all classes, and travelogues, especially of religious pilgrimages. The citizens of Novgorod wrote in a realistic and businesslike fashion. In addition to the birch-bark texts, archeologists also found the oldest surviving Russian manuscript in Novgorod: three wax tablets with Psalms 67, 75, and 76, dating from the first quarter of the 11th century.[118]
See also
Notes
- ^ Considered to be a dialect of (Old) Russian which dispersed in the 15th century.[1][2]
- ^ From 1165, the bishop of Novgorod became known as the archbishop of Novgorod. The archbishop was confirmed by the metropolitan of Kiev (later based in Vladimir then Moscow) and, after the Russian Orthodox Church became de facto independent in 1448, the metropolitan of Moscow.
- ^ Also Lord Novgorod the Great (Russian: Господин Великий Новгород, romanized: Gospodin Velikiy Novgorod).[18]
References
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The year 1136, in which the Novgorodians deposed and imprisoned Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, was the turning point... Princes of Novgorod now assumed the throne at the invitation of the veche, which could also dismiss them...
- ^ Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159, The major showdown took place in 1136... From then on, the Novgorod veche appointed and expelled the prince.
- ^ Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159, During the first decades of the 12th century, it gradually appropriated the right to elect its own posadnik, who was originally an official appointed by the prince to rule during the latter's absence. The posadnik thus became the elected burgomaster.
- ^ a b Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159.
- ^ Feldbrugge 2009, p. 159, The most important official after the posadnik was the tysiatskii (chiliarch, 'thousandman')), originally the military commander.
- ^ Feldbrugge 2017, p. 487.
- ISBN 978-90-04-48076-6.
Actual power in Novgorod rested with its chief officials, the posadnik (mayor, or governor) and the tysiatskii (the Byzantine chiliarch, a military commander), originally appointees of the prince, but subsequently elected, the veche, dominated by the Novgorod boyars...
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In some ways the history of Russia in Siberia properly begins in the forested hinterlands of the Russian north, where the Novgorodian republic grew wealthy exploiting furs in its hinterlands and as far as the Urals... Ushkuiniki, as the fur trappers and traders of Novgorod were called, raided and extorted furs from Samoyed and Vogul (and Komi) tribes in the far northern forests of Novgorod's hinterlands.
- ISBN 978-5-458-23391-0.
Ушкуйники... вооруженные новгородские дружины (до неск. тыс. чел.), формировавшиеся боярами из людей без определенных занятий для захвата колоний на Севере и торг. разбойничьих экспедиций на Волге и Каме...
- ^ Histoire Russe. University Center for International Studies, University of Pittsburgh. 2004. p. 41.
The Prince of Novgorod was usually the Grand Prince of Vladimir and later Moscow, but not always; there are cases of Lithuanian princes being called in, but it is not clear if these princes were considered Princes of Novgorod...
- ISBN 978-1-4381-0829-2.
- ^ Millar 2004, p. 687, Under Ivan III's reign, the uniting of separate Russian principalities into a centralized state made great and rapid progress.
- ^ Stevens 2013, p. 28.
- ^ Vernadsky & Karpovich 1959, p. 37.
- . Retrieved 23 December 2022.
- ^ a b Herberstein, Sigmund von (1851). texts Notes upon Russia : Being a translation of the earliest account of that country, entitled Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii. Hakluyt Society. p. 25.
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- ^ Igor Froianov, Kievskaia Rus; ocherki sotsialʼno-ekonomicheskoĭ istorii. (Leningrad: Leningrad State University, 1974).
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- ^ Primary Chronicle
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Although Novgorod had originally 'invited' the Varangian princes to rule over Russia in 862, it had grown increasingly high-handed in its treatment of their descendents... Having been both the birthplace of Russian monarchy, and the stronghold of popular democracy, Novgorod became a touchstone in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century debate on the form of government proper to the Russian state.
- ISBN 978-0-8160-7475-4.
In 862, the semilegendary Rurik—considered to be the founder of the Russian monarchy—became prince of Novgorod... Nevertheless, in 1136 Novgorod achieved formal independence from Kiev... and by the 14th century had grown into an important outpost of the Hanseatic League...
- ^ Jezierski, Wojtek; Hermanson, Lars; Peikola, Matti (2016). Imagined Communities on the Baltic Rim: From the Eleventh to Fifteenth Centuries. Crossing Boundaries: Turku Medieval and Early Modern Studies. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. p. 331.
During this period the so-called 'Russian-Scandinavian cultural symbiosis' prevalent since the establishment of Rus' as a political entity in the ninth century was overshadowed by rivalry and hostility in the wake of the Baltic crusades. Until the thirteenth century, the Russians were conventionally seen by the Scandinavians – and indeed understood themselves – as a part of the unified gens Christianorum.
- ^ JSTOR 2491696.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-299-05233-1.
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- ^ Michael C. Paul, "Was the Prince of Novgorod a 'Third-rate bureaucrat' after 1136?" Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 56, No. 1 (Spring 2008): 72–113.
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This 'Second' Crusade to Finland was, according to Russian sources, immediately followed by the unsuccessful Swedish expedition to the Neva, which was thwarted by the Novgorodians
- ^ Fonnesberg-Schmidt 2007, pp. 216–217, The Russian victory was later depicted as an event of great national importance and Prince Alexander was given the sobriquet "Nevskii".
- ^ Moss 2003, p. 73, The first significant Russian prince to rule under the Mongols was Alexander Nevsky. When the Mongols conquered Rus, he was prince of Novgorod, and he soon led it to two important victories. For his first victory... in 1240, he received (two centuries later) the appellation 'Nevsky'.
- ISBN 978-1-135-13137-1.
At first the lands around Pskov were occupied, but in 1242 Prince Alexander Nevsky drove the Germans back from his lands and defeated the Teutonic Knights on 5 April 1242 in the so-called 'battle on the ice'
- ^ Fonnesberg-Schmidt 2007, p. 220, the campaign against Izborsk and Pskov was a purely political undertaking... the co-operation between the exiled Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich of Pskov and the men from the bishopric of Dorpat.
- ^ Fonnesberg-Schmidt 2007, pp. 218, In the winter of 1240–41, a group of Latin Christians invaded Votia, the lands north-east of Lake Peipus which were tributary to Novgorod.
- ^ Isoaho 2006, p. 67, The popular image of Prince Aleksandr is above all that of a defender; later he achieved his patriotic image as the ideal defender of the whole Russian nation... at the time when the so-called 'Catholic expansion' was directed towards Russia... the Life of Aleksandr depicts an ideal ruler whose Christian valour was demonstrated by miraculous acts.
- ^ Moss 2003, p. 73.
- ^ Moss 2003, pp. 73–75.
- ^ Martin, Treasure of the Land of Darkness
- ^ Paul, "Secular Power and the Archbishops of Novgorod Before the Muscovite Conquest," 258–259.
- ^ a b c d e f Moss 2003, p. 90.
- ^ Richard Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime, p. 80
- ^ Millar 2004, p. 687.
- ^ Crummey 2013, p. 88.
- ^ Gail Lenhoff and Janet Martin. "Marfa Boretskaia, Posadnitsa of Novgorod: A Reconsideration of Her Legend and Her Life." Slavic Review 59, no. 2 (2000): 343–368.
- ^ Paul, "Secular Power and the Archbishops of Novgorod," 262.
- ^ Moss 2003, p. 91.
- ^ Sixsmith, Martin. "Chapter 3." Russia: A 1,000 Year Chronicle of the Wild East. New York: Overlook Pr., 2012. 41. Print.
- ^ Richard Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime, p. 93
- ^ Bushkovitch 2011, p. 37, If we must choose a moment for the birth of Russia out of the Moscow principality, it is the final annexation of Novgorod by Grand Prince Ivan III (1462–1505) of Moscow in 1478.
- ISBN 978-1-317-90215-7.
The bringing together of the Russian lands under his rule and the recognition of his claim to be sovereign of all Russia (gosudar' vseya Rusi) was Ivan's primary objective.
- ^ Sixsmith, Martin. "Chapter 3." Russia: A 1,000 Year Chronicle of the Wild East. New York: Overlook Pr., 2012. 40. Print.
- ^ Sixsmith, Martin. "Chapter 3." Russia: A 1,000 Year Chronicle of the Wild East. New York: Overlook Pr., 2012. 19. Print.
- ^ Sixsmith, Martin. "Chapter 3." Russia: A 1,000 Year Chronicle of the Wild East. New York: Overlook Pr., 2012. 20. Print.
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- ^ a b Crummey 2013, p. 33.
- ^ Feldbrugge 2017, p. 185.
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The unification of Russia around Moscow confronted the Russian government with the problem of integrating Novgorod with the other newly annexed territories into the state... The Sudebnik issued by Ivan III in 1497 was Russia's first 'national' code of laws.
- ^ Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto
- ^ See, for example, Igor Froianov, Kievskaia Rus; ocherki sotsialʼno-ekonomicheskoĭ istorii. (Leningrad: Leningrad State University, 1974).
- ^ Crummey 2013, p. 33, Just before 1300, a series of reforms consolidated the oligarchy's hold on Novgorod... In order to make the oligarchy's rule more stable and effective, its members formed the Council of Lords.
- ISBN 978-1-7252-2440-7.
It consisted exclusively of members of the great merchant families who dominated city office and gave city government the character of an oligarchy.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-6843-8.
In the commercial cities of Novgorod and Pskov a merchant oligarchy dominated political life through the operation of the popular assembly (veche).
- ISBN 978-1-317-87089-0.
From then on Novgorod was effectively a city republic, ruled by an oligarchy, a small group of boyar and rich merchant families, much like western and central European towns, but unique in Russia.
- ^ V. O. Kliuchevskii, Boiarskaia Duma drevnei Rus; Dobrye liudi Drevnei Rus (Moscow: Ladomir 1994), 172–206; Idem., Sochinenii, vol. 2, pp. 68–69
- ^ Vernadsky 1948, pp. 98, 197–201.
- ^ a b c Valentin Yanin "Outline of history of medieval Novgorod.
- ^ Paul, "Was the Prince of Novgorod a 'Third-rate bureaucrat' after 1136?" passim.
- ISBN 978-0-521-13533-7.
There was, however, one city and one diocese, which, although a part of the metropolitanate, succeeded in maintaining a privileged status of relative independence: Novgorod. A commercial city, connected with the Hanseatic League of German states... succeeded in maintaining great political independence... Its spiritual head, the bishop, occupied the fourth prominent position in the city government. Since the twelfth century, he assumed the title of 'archbishop'.
- ^ Michael C. Paul, "Secular Power and the Archbishops of Novgorod Before the Muscovite Conquest." Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 8, no. 2 (Spring 2007): 231–270
- ^ Idem, "Episcopal Election in Novgorod, Rus 1156–1478." Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture 72, no. 2 (June 2003): 251–275.
- ^ Valentin Yanin Novgorod posadniks
- ^ Starting from 1156, elevated to archiepiscopal status in 1165
- ^ Michael C. Paul, "The Iaroslavichi and the Novgorodian Veche 1230–1270: A Case Study on Princely Relations with the Veche," Russian History/ Histoire Russe 31, no. 1–2 (Spring–Summer, 2004): 41.
- ^ ISBN 9785981872365.
- ^ Valk, ed. Gramoty Velikogo Novgoroda i Pskova
- ^ Valentin Yanin Novgorod acts of 12th–15th centuries
- ^ Valentin Yanin "Sources of Novgorod statehood.
- ^ Paul, "Was the Prince of Novgorod a 'Third-rate bureaucrat' after 1136?" 100–107.
- ISBN 978-90-04-48076-6.
- ^ a b Habakkuk 1987, p. 593.
- ^ Janet Martin, Treasure of the Land of Darkness: the Fur Trade and its Significance for Medieval Rus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
- ^ Paul, "Secular Power and the Archbishops of Novgorod Before the Muscovite Conquest," 258.
- ^ Habakkuk 1987, p. 596.
- ^ Спасский, Иван Георгиевич (1962). Русская монетная система: историко-нумизматический очерк (in Russian). Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа. p. 27.
- ^ Зварич В.В., ed. (1980). "Новгородская денга, новгородка". Нумизматический словарь. Львов: Высшая школа.
- ISBN 978-0-19-534814-9.
- ^ Moss 2003, p. 115.
- ISBN 978-1-5381-1942-6.
- ISBN 978-1-5326-1831-4.
- ^ Порфиридов, Н.Г. (1947). Древний Новгород. Очерки из истории русской культуры XI–XV вв (in Russian). Издательство Академии Наук СССР. p. 122.
- ^ Быков, А. В. (2006). Новгородское войско XI–XV веков (диссертация) (in Russian). pp. 83–109.
- ^ Подвальнов Е.Д.; Несин М.А.; Шиндлер О.В (2019). "К вопросу о вестернизации военного дела Северо-Запада Руси". История военного дела: исследования и источники (in Russian). VII: 81. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ^ Быков, А. В. (2006). Новгородское войско XI–XV веков (диссертация) (in Russian). p. 212.
- ^ Шмелев К.В. (2001). "О применении судовой артиллерии на северо-западе России в допетровское время". Вестник молодых ученых: Исторические науки (in Russian). 1: 53–55.
- ^ Frank McLynn, Genghis Khan (2015), 441.
- ISBN 978-0-8160-4671-3.
- ISBN 978-1-57958-041-4.
- ^ Vzdornov & McDarby 1997, p. 47.
- ^ a b Vzdornov & McDarby 1997, p. 48.
- ISBN 978-88-8491-393-7.
For these reasons, we find coexisting in the churches, in the monuments, and in the icons of what was one of the oldest and most important Orthodox religious centres, the Byzantine-influenced style of Kiev, European Romanesque and Gothic art, and the most original and authentic 'Russian spirit'.
- ^ Vzdornov & McDarby 1997, p. 53.
- ^ Vzdornov & McDarby 1997, p. 56.
- ISBN 978-90-04-30527-4.
...the Novgorod school gave way to the Moscow school which, in turn, was succeeded by the Stroganov school. As the Novgorod school derives directly from the Byzantine one, Novgorod painting was regarded as a variety of Greek painting rather than a school of its own. The Moscow school of icon painting was the first, and most famous, Russian one. It emerged in the sixteenth century during the reign of Ivan the Terrible.
- ^ ISBN 9780190645601.
- ^ Anonymous, "Novgorod," 143.
- ^ Anonymous, "Novgorod," 183.
- ^ V. L. Ianin, "Medieval Novgorod" in The Cambridge History of Russia: From Early Rus' to 1689. Vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008), 208–209.
- ^ Ianin, "Medieval Novgorod ," 209.
- ^ V. K. Laurina and V. A. Puškarev, Novgorod Icons: 12th–17th Century (Leningrad: Aurora, 1980), 21.
- S2CID 2937303.
- ISBN 5857590078.
- ^ Кусков, Владимир Владимирович (1989). История древнерусской литературы (in Russian). Высшая школа. p. 162.
- ^ a b Ianin, "Medieval Novgorod," 206.
- ^ Riasanovsky and Steinberg, "Lord Novgorod the Great," 80.
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