Republic of Serbian Krajina
Republic of Serbian Krajina Република Српска Крајина Republika Srpska Krajina | ||
---|---|---|
1991–1995 | ||
Motto: Unrecognized state[1] | ||
Capital | Knin | |
Largest city | Vukovar | |
Common languages | Serbian | |
Religion | Serbian Orthodox | |
Government | Semi-presidential republic | |
President | ||
• 1991–1992 | Milan Babić | |
• 1992–1993 | Goran Hadžić | |
• 1993–1994 | Milan Babić | |
• 1994–1995 | Milan Martić | |
Prime Minister | ||
• 1991–1992 (first) | Dušan Vještica | |
• 1995 (last) | Milan Babić | |
Legislature | Constitution adopted | 19 December 1991 |
3 May 1995 | ||
8 August 1995 | ||
12 November 1995 | ||
Area | ||
1991[2] | 17,028 km2 (6,575 sq mi) | |
Population | ||
• 1991[2] | 286,716 | |
• 1993[2] | 435,595 | |
• 1994 | 430,000 | |
Currency | Krajina dinar (1992–1994) Yugoslav dinar (1994–1995) | |
Today part of | Croatia | |
The Republic of Serbian Krajina or Serb Republic of Krajina (
The government of Krajina had de facto control over central parts of the territory while control of the outskirts changed with the successes and failures of its military activities. The territory was legally protected by the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR).
Its main portion was
Background
The name
Following the end of
Between 1939 and 1941, in an attempt to resolve the Croat-Serb political and social antagonism in first Yugoslavia, the Kingdom established an autonomous Banovina of Croatia incorporating (amongst other territories) much of the former Military Frontier as well as parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1941, the Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia and in the aftermath the Independent State of Croatia (which included the whole of today's Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of Serbia (Eastern Syrmia) as well) was declared. The Germans installed the Ustaše (who had allegedly plotted the assassination of the Serbian King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in 1934) as rulers of the new country; the Ustaše authorities promptly pursued a genocidal policy of persecution of Serbs, Jews and Croats (from opposition groups), leading to the deaths of over 300,000.[13][14] During this period, individual Croats coalesced around the ruling authorities or around the communist anti-fascist Partisans. Serbs from around the Knin area tended to join the Chetniks, whilst Serbs from the Banovina and Slavonia regions tended to join the Partisans. Various Chetnik groups also committed atrocities against Croats across many areas of Lika and parts of northern Dalmatia.[15]
At the end of World War II in 1945, the communist-dominated Partisans prevailed and the Krajina region became part of the People's Republic of Croatia until 7 April 1963, when the federal republic changed its name to the
The Serbian "Krajina" entity to emerge upon Croatia's declaration of independence in 1991 would include three kinds of territories:
- a large section of the historical Military Frontier, in areas with a majority Serbian population;
- areas such as parts of northern Dalmatia, that never formed part of the Frontier but had a majority or a plurality of Serbian population, including the self-proclaimed entity's capital, Knin;
- areas that bordered with Serbia and where Serbs formed a significant minority (Baranya, Vukovar).
Large sections of the historical Military Frontier lay outside of the Republic of Serbian Krajina and contained a largely Croat population - these including much of Lika, the area centered around the city of Bjelovar, central and south-eastern Slavonia.
Creation
The Serb-populated regions in Croatia were of central concern to the Serbian nationalist movement of the late 1980s, led by
Serbs became increasingly opposed to the policies of Franjo Tuđman, elected president of Croatia in April 1990, due to his overt desire for the creation of an independent Croatia. On 30 May 1990, the Serb Democratic Party (SDS) of Jovan Rašković broke all ties to the Croatian parliament. The following June in Knin, the SDS-led Serbs proclaimed the creation of the Association of Municipalities of Northern Dalmatia and Lika. In August 1990, the Serbs began what became known as the Log Revolution, where barricades of logs were placed across roads throughout the South as an expression of their secession from Croatia. This effectively cut Croatia in two, separating the coastal region of Dalmatia from the rest of the country. The Constitution of Croatia was passed in December 1990, which reduced the status of Serbs from "constituent" to a "national minority" in the same category as other groups such as Italians and Hungarians. Some would later justify their claim to an independent Serb state by arguing that the new constitution contradicted the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution, because, in their view, Croatia was still legally governed by the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, although this ignores the fact that Serbia's constitution, promulgated three months before Croatia's, also contained several provisions violating the 1974 Federal Constitution.[19]
Serbs in Croatia had established a Serbian National Council in July 1990 to coordinate opposition to Croatian independence. Their position was that if Croatia could secede from Yugoslavia, then the Serbs could secede from Croatia.
In August 1990, a referendum was held in Krajina on the question of Serb "sovereignty and autonomy" in Croatia. The resolution was confined exclusively to Serbs so it passed by an improbable majority of 99.7%. As expected, it was declared illegal and invalid by the Croatian government, who stated that Serbs had no constitutional right to break away from Croatian legal territory - as well as no right to limit the franchise to one ethnic group.
Babić's administration announced the creation of a Serbian Autonomous Oblast of Krajina (or SAO Krajina) on 21 December 1990. On 16 March 1991, another referendum was held which asked: "Are you in favor of the SAO Krajina joining the Republic of Serbia and staying in Yugoslavia with Serbia, Montenegro and others who wish to preserve Yugoslavia?". With 99.8% voting in favor, the referendum was approved and the Krajina assembly declared that "the territory of the SAO Krajina is a constitutive part of the unified state territory of the Republic of Serbia".[21][22][23] On 1 April 1991, it declared that it would secede from Croatia.[24] Other Serb-dominated communities in eastern Croatia announced that they would also join SAO Krajina and ceased paying taxes to the Zagreb government, and began implementing its own currency system, army regiments, and postal service.
Croatia held a
Around August 1991, the leaders of Serbian Krajina and Serbia allegedly agreed to embark on a campaign which the ICTY prosecutors described as a "joint criminal enterprise" whose purpose "was the forcible removal of the majority of the Croat and other non-Serb population from approximately one-third of the territory of the Republic of Croatia, an area he planned to become part of a new Serb-dominated state."[25] According to testimony given by Milan Babić in his subsequent war crimes trial, during the summer of 1991, the Serbian secret police (under Milošević's command) set up "a parallel structure of state security and the police of Krajina and units commanded by the state security of Serbia".[26] Paramilitary groups such as the Wolves of Vučjak and White Eagles, funded by the Serbian secret police, were also a key component of this structure.[27]
A wider-scale war was launched in August 1991. Over the following months, a large area of territory, amounting to a third of Croatia, was controlled by the rebel Serbs. The Croatian population suffered heavily, fleeing or evicted with numerous killings, leading to
In the latter half of 1991, Croatia was beginning to form an army and their main defenders, the local police, were overpowered by the JNA military who supported rebelled Croatian Serbs. The RSK was located entirely inland, but they soon started advancing deeper into Croatian territory.
Formal proclamations
On 19 December 1991, the SAO Krajina proclaimed itself the Republic of Serbian Krajina. The Constitution of Serbian Krajina came into effect the same day.
1992 ceasefire
Under the Vance plan, signed in November 1991, Presidents Tuđman and Milošević agreed to a United Nations peace plan put forward by Cyrus Vance. A final ceasefire agreement, the
The JNA officially withdrew from Croatia in May 1992 but much of its weaponry and many of its personnel remained in the Serb-held areas and were turned over to the RSK's security forces. Refugees were not allowed to return to their homes and many of the remaining Croats and other nationalities left in the RSK were expelled or killed in the following months.
The agreement effectively froze the front lines for the next three years. Croatia and the RSK had effectively fought each other to a standstill. The Republic of Serbian Krajina was not recognized de jure by any other country or international organization. Nevertheless, it gained support from Serbia's allies, like Russia.
After the ceasefire
UNPROFOR was deployed throughout the region to maintain the ceasefire, although in practice its light armament and restricted rules of engagement meant that it was little more than an observer force. It proved wholly unable to ensure that refugees returned to the RSK. Indeed, the rebel Croatian Serb authorities continued to make efforts to ensure that they could never return, destroying villages and cultural and religious monuments to erase the previous existence of the Croatian inhabitants of the Krajina.[33] Milan Babić later testified that this policy was driven from Belgrade through the Serbian secret police—and ultimately Milošević—who he claimed was in control of all the administrative institutions and armed forces in the Krajina.[39] This would certainly explain why the Yugoslav National Army took the side of the rebelled Croatian Serbs in spite of its claims to be acting as a "peacekeeping" force. Milošević denied this, claiming that Babić had made it up "out of fear".
The Army of Serbian Krajina frequently attacked neighboring Bihać enclave (then in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina) with heavy artillery.[40]
With the creation of new Croatian counties on 30 December 1992, the Croatian government also set aside two autonomous regions (kotar) for ethnic Serbs in the areas of Krajina:
- Autonomous District of Glina (Croatian: Autonomni kotar Glina, Serbian Cyrillic: Аутономни котар Глина)
- Municipalities
- Autonomous District of Knin (Croatian: Autonomni kotar Knin, Serbian Cyrillic: Аутономни котар Книн)
However, Serbs considered this too late, as it was not the amount of autonomy they wanted, and by now they had declared de facto independence.
The districts never actually functioned since they were located within the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina. The existence of the Autonomous District of Glina was also provided in the draft of the
Decline
The partial implementation of the Vance Plan drove a wedge between the governments of the RSK and Serbia, the RSK's principal backer and supplier of fuel, arms, and money. Milan Babić strongly opposed the Vance Plan but was overruled by the RSK's assembly.[33]
On 26 February 1992, Babić was deposed and replaced as President of the RSK by Goran Hadžić, a Milošević loyalist. Babić remained involved in RSK politics but as a considerably weaker figure.
The position of the RSK eroded steadily over the following three years. On the surface, the RSK had all the trappings of a state: army, parliament, president, government and ministries, currency and stamps. However, its economy was wholly dependent on support from the rump Yugoslavia, which had the effect of importing that country's hyperinflation.
The economic situation soon became disastrous. By 1994, only 36,000 of the RSK's 430,000 citizens were employed. The war had severed the RSK's trade links with the rest of Croatia, leaving its few industries idle. With few natural resources of its own, it had to import most of the goods and fuel it required. Agriculture was devastated, and operated at little more than a subsistence level.[4] Professionals went to Serbia or elsewhere to escape the republic's economic hardships. To make matters worse, the RSK's government was grossly corrupt and the region became a haven for black marketeering and other criminal activity. It was clear by the mid-1990s that without a peace deal or support from Yugoslavia the RSK was not economically viable.[44] This was especially evident in Belgrade, where the RSK had become an unwanted economic and political burden for Milošević. Much to his frustration, the rebel Croatian Serbs rebuffed his government's demands to settle the conflict.[33] In July 1992 the RSK issued its own currency, the Krajina dinar (HRKR), in parallel with the Yugoslav dinar. This was followed by the "October dinar" (HRKO), first issued on 1 October 1993 and equal to 1,000,000 Reformed Dinar, and the "1994 dinar", first issued on 1 January 1994, and equal to 1,000,000,000 October dinar. The RSK's weakness also adversely affected its armed forces, the
In January 1993 the revitalized Croatian army attacked the Serbian positions around Maslenica in southern Croatia which curtailed their access to the sea via Novigrad.
In mid-1993, the RSK authorities started a campaign to formally create a United Serbian Republic.
In a second offensive in mid-September 1993, the Croatian army overran the
General elections were held in the RSK on 12 December 1993, with a second round of the presidential election on 23 January 1994. Martić received 54,000 fewer votes than Babić in the first round, but went on to win the second round with 104,234 votes.[48][49][50][51][52]
Operation Flash and Storm
Following the rejection by both sides of the
Between 2001 and 2012, the ICTY had prosecuted Croatian generals
Later events
The parts of the former RSK in eastern Croatia (along with the Danube) remained in place, in what was previously the SAO Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia.
In 1995, Milan Milanović, formerly a Republic of Serbian Krajina official, signed the
After the peaceful reintegration, two Croatian islands on the Danube, the
In 1995 a Croatian court sentenced former RSK president Goran Hadžić in absentia to 20 years in prison for rocket attacks on Šibenik and Vodice. In 1999 he was sentenced to an additional 20 years for war crimes in Tenja, near Osijek,[58] and in 2002 Croatia's state attorney brought another indictment against him for the murder of almost 1,300 Croats in Vukovar, Osijek, Vinkovci, Županja and elsewhere.[58] On 4 June 2004, the ICTY indicted him on 14 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity.[59] In 2011 he was arrested and extradited to the Hague, where his initial trial hearing was held on 25 July the same year.[60]
After the war, a number of towns and municipalities that had comprised the RSK were designated Areas of Special State Concern.
Demographics
According to the indictment of prosecutor Carla Del Ponte against Slobodan Milošević at the ICTY, the Croat and non-Serb population from the 1991 census was approximately as follows:[61]
Census (1991) | Serbs | Croats | Others | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|
Later RSK total | 245,800 (52.3%) | 168,000 (35.8%) | 55,900 (11.9%) | 469,700 |
UNPA Sector North and South
|
170,100 (67%) | 70,700 (28%) | 13,100 (5%) | 253,900 |
SAO Western Slavonia | 14,200 (60%) | 6,900 (29%) | 2,600 (11%) | 23,700 |
SAO SBWS | 61,500 (32%) | 90,500 (47%) | 40,200 (21%) | 192,200 |
Thus Serbs comprised 52.3% and Croats 35.8% of the population of SAO Krajina respectively in 1991.
According to data set forth at the meeting of the Government of the RSK in July 1992, its ethnic composition was 88% Serbs, 7% Croats, 5% others.[46] As of November 1993, less than 400 ethnic Croats still resided in UNPA Sector South,[62] and between 1,500 and 2,000 remained in UNPA Sector North.[63]
Towns
Towns which were at one point part of RSK or occupied by the RSK's army:[citation needed]
- Beli Manastir
- Benkovac
- Biskupija
- Boričevac
- Borovo
- Cetingrad
- Donji Lapac
- Drniš
- Dubica
- Dvor
- Erdut
- Ervenik
- Glina
- Gračac
- Gvozd
- Jagodnjak
- Jasenovac
- Kistanje
- Knin
- Korenica
- Kostajnica
- Krnjak
- Lovinac
- Majur
- Markušica
- Maslenica
- Negoslavci
- Nunić
- Obrovac
- Okučani
- Petrinja
- Plitvička Jezera
- Plaski
- Rakovica
- Saborsko
- Slunj
- Sveti Rok
- Šodolovci
- Strmica
- Sunja
- Topusko
- Trpinja
- Udbina
- Vojnić
- Vrhovine
- Vrlika
- Vukovar
Status
Serbian Krajina has been described as a "
Legal status
During its existence, this entity did not achieve international recognition. On 29 November 1991, the
On 20 November 1991
Support and funding
Government
Presidents
- Milan Babić (19 December 1991 – 16 February 1992)
- Mile Paspalj (16 February 1992 – 26 February 1992) (acting)
- Goran Hadžić (26 February 1992 – 12 December 1993)
- Milan Babić (12 December 1993 – 23 January 1994)
- Milan Martić (23 January 1994 – 7 August 1995)
Prime Ministers
- Dušan Vještica (19 December 1991 – 16 February 1992)
- Risto Matković (16 February 1992 – 26 February 1992) (acting)
- Zdravko Zečević (26 February 1992 – 21 April 1993)
- Đorđe Bjegović (21 April 1993 – 27 March 1994)
- Borislav Mikelić (27 March 1994 – 27 July 1995)
- Milan Babić (27 July 1995 – 7 August 1995)
Speaker of the National Assembly
See also
Annotations
References
- ^ Prosecutor v. Milan Martić Judgement Archived 4 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine. p. 46. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Retrieved 13 September 2009. (On 16 March 1991 another referendum was held which asked "Are you in favour of the SAO Krajina joining the Republic of Serbia and staying in Yugoslavia with Serbia, Montenegro and others who wish to preserve Yugoslavia?". With 99.8% voting in favour, the referendum was approved and the Krajina assembly declared that "the territory of the SAO Krajina is a constitutive part of the unified state territory of the Republic of Serbia".)
- ^ a b "Croatia". Archived from the original on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
- ^ ISBN 0-7618-3647-0.
- ^ a b Svarm, Filip (15 August 1994). The Krajina Economy Archived 15 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Vreme News Digest Agency. Retrieved 8 July 2009.
- ^ "HIC: VJESNIK, Podlistak, 16 i 17. travnja 2005., VELIKOSRPSKA TVOREVINA NA HRVATSKOM TLU: IZVORNI DOKUMENTI O DJELOVANJU 'REPUBLIKE SRPSKE KRAJINE' (XXIX.)". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
- ^ "Godišnjica Oluje: Hrvatska slavi, Srbija žali". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 31 August 2015.
- ^ "DOKUMENTI INSTITUCIJA POBUNJENIH SRBA U REPUBLICI HRVATSKOJ (siječanj – lipanj 1993.)", edicija "REPUBLIKA HRVATSKA I DOMOVINSKI RAT 1990.-1995. DOKUMENTI", Knjiga 7., str. 14-16, 21, 24, 35, 42, 52, 59, 103, 130, 155, 161, 180-182, 197, 351, 378, 414, 524, 605, 614, 632, 637
- ^ a b Kolar-Dimitrijević, Mira (2018). "The history of Money in Croatia (1527-1941)". Croatian National Bank. p. 38.
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- ^ Prosecutor v. Milan Martić Judgement Archived 4 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine. p. 46. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
- ^ Prosecutor v. Milan Martić Judgement. p. 46. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Accessed 13 September 2009. (On 16 March 1991 another referendum was held which asked "Are you in favour of the SAO Krajina joining the Republic of Serbia and staying in Yugoslavia with Serbia, Montenegro and others who wish to preserve Yugoslavia?". With 99.8% voting in favour, the referendum was approved and the Krajina assembly declared that "the territory of the SAO Krajina is a constitutive part of the unified state territory of the Republic of Serbia".)
- ^ Prosecutor v. Milan Martić Judgement Archived 4 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine. p. 46. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Retrieved 13 September 2009.
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- Journals
- Pavlaković, V. (2013). "Symbols and the culture of memory in Republika Srpska Krajina". Nationalities Papers. 41 (6): 893–909. S2CID 153965465.
- Kolstø, P.; Paukovic, D. (2014). "The Short and Brutish Life of Republika Srpska Krajina: Failure of a De Facto State". Ethnopolitics. 13 (4): 309–327. S2CID 144097806.
- Vego, Marko (October 1993). "The Army of Serbian Krajina". Jane's Intelligence Review. 5 (10): 493–.
- Cigar, N. (1993). "The Serbo‐Croatian war, 1991: Political and military dimensions". The Journal of Strategic Studies. 16 (3): 297–338. .
- Grandits, H.; Leutloff, C. (2003). "Discourses, Actors, Violence: The Organisation of War-escalation in the Krajina region of Croatia 1990—91". Potentials of Disorder: Explaining Conflict and Stability in the Caucasus and in the Former Yugoslavia: 23–45.
- Doder, D. (1993). "Yugoslavia: new war, old hatreds". Foreign Policy. 91 (91): 3–23. JSTOR 1149057.
- Ashbrook, J.; Bakich, S. D. (2010). "Storming to Partition: Croatia, the United States, and Krajina in the Yugoslav War". Small Wars & Insurgencies. 21 (4): 537–560. S2CID 143824950.
- Documents
- Jarčević, S., ed. (2005). Republika Srpska Krajina: državna dokumenta. Agencija "Miroslav"; Kosmos.
- "Final Report of the United Nations Commission of Experts, 28 December 1994: The military structure, strategy and tactics of the warring factions". UN. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012.
- Cleanup
- "Operation Storm – Attack on the Krajina", Jane's Intelligence Review, 1 November 1995
- (in Serbian) Дакић М. Крајина кроз вијекове: из историjе политичких, националних и људских права српског народа у Хрватскоj. — Београд, 2002.
- (in Serbian) Радуловиħ С. Судбина Краjине. — Београд: Дан Граф, 1996. — 189 с.
- (in Serbian) Радослав И. Чубрило, Биљана Р. Ивковић, Душан Ђаковић, Јован Адамовић, Милан Ђ. Родић и др. Српска Крајина. — Београд: Матић, 2011. — 742 с.
- (in Serbian) Република Српска Краjина: десет година послиjе / [уредник Вељко Ђурић Мишина]. — Београд: Добра Вольа, 2005. — 342 с. — ISBN 86-83905-04-7
- (in Serbian) Република Српска Краjина: десет година послиjе. Књ. 2 / [уредник Вељко Ђурић Мишина]. — Београд: Добра Вольа, 2005. — 250 с. — ISBN 86-83905-05-5
- (in Serbian) Штрбац, Саво Рат и ријеч. — Бања Лука: Графид, 2011. — 190 с. — ISBN 9789993853749
External links
- The Homeland War
- (in Croatian) Slobodna Dalmacija Granić kaže da Haag nema dokumente o agresiji na Hrvatsku?
- (English) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations[permanent dead link] A/RES/49/43 The situation in the occupied territories of Croatia
- Map[permanent dead link] (from a site run by minister of intelligence of RSK)
- The Thorny Issue of Ethnic Autonomy in Croatia: Serb Leaders and Proposals for Autonomy, Nina Caspersen,London School of Economics and Political Science (http://www.ecmi.de/fileadmin/downloads/publications/JEMIE/2003/nr3/Focus3-2003_Caspersen.pdf)
Notes
- ^ "Richardson Institute for Peace Studies at Lancaster University". Retrieved 26 December 2014.