Italian resistance movement
Italian resistance movement | |
---|---|
Resistenza italiana (Italian) | |
Leaders | |
Dates of operation | 8 September 1943 – 25 April 1945 |
Motives | Liberation of Italy from Nazism and Fascism |
Headquarters | Rome |
Active regions | Kingdom of Italy |
Ideology | |
Allies | Kingdom of Italy Allies |
Opponents | Nazi Germany Italian Social Republic |
Battles and wars | Italian Civil War |
The Italian resistance movement (
General underground Italian opposition to the
The Resistance was a diverse coalition of various Italian political parties, independent resistance fighters and soldiers, and partisan brigades and militias. The modern Italian Republic was declared to be founded on the struggle of the Resistance: the Constituent Assembly was mostly composed of representatives of the parties that had given life to the Italian Resistance's National Liberation Committee. These former Italian Resistance fighters wrote the Constitution of Italy at the end of the war based on a compromissory synthesis of their Resistance parties' respective principles of democracy and anti-fascism.[1]
Background
The Italian Resistance has its roots in
In Italy, Mussolini's
The
After the murder of the socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti (1924) and the decisive assumption of responsibility by Mussolini, the process of totalitarianization of the State began in the Kingdom of Italy, which will give rise to ever greater control and severe persecution of opponents, at risk of imprisonment and confinement.
The anti-fascists therefore organized themselves clandestinely in Italy and abroad, creating with great difficulty a rudimentary network of connections, which however did not produce significant practical results, remaining fragmented into small uncoordinated groups, incapable of attacking or threatening the regime, if some attacks carried out in particular by anarchists are excluded. Their activity was limited to the ideological side; the production of writings was copious, particularly among the anti-fascist exile communities, which however did not reach the masses and did not influence public opinion.[9]
Concentrazione Antifascista Italiana (English: Italian Anti-Fascist Concentration), officially known as Concentrazione d'Azione Antifascista (Anti-Fascist Action Concentration), was an Italian coalition of Anti-Fascist groups which existed from 1927 to 1934. Founded in Nérac, France, by expatriate Italians, the CAI was an alliance of non-communist anti-fascist forces (republican, socialist, nationalist) trying to promote and to coordinate expatriate actions to fight fascism in Italy; they published a propaganda paper entitled La Libertà.[10][11][12]
Some historians[15][16] have also underlined how the Resistance movement may have links with the Spanish Civil War, in particular with those who had served in the International Brigades.[17] Many Italian anti-fascists participated in the Spanish Civil War with the hope of setting an example of armed resistance to Franco's dictatorship against Mussolini's regime; hence their motto: "Today in Spain, tomorrow in Italy".[18]
Resistance by the Italian Armed Forces
In Italy
Rome
Armed resistance to the German occupation following the
Outnumbered German
By 10 September, the Germans had penetrated downtown Rome and the
Piombino
One of the most important episodes of resistance by Italian Armed Forces after the armistice was the Battle of Piombino in Tuscany.[22] On 10 September 1943, during Operation Achse, a small German flotilla, commanded by Kapitänleutnant Karl-Wolf Albrand, tried to enter the harbour of Piombino but was denied access by the port authorities.[22] General and Fascist official Cesare Maria De Vecchi in command of the Italian 215th Coastal Division ordered the port authorities to allow the German flotilla to enter, against the advice of Commander Amedeo Capuano, the Naval commander of the harbour.[22][23][24] Once they entered and landed, the German forces showed a hostile behaviour, and it became clear that their intent was to occupy the town; the local population asked for a resolved reaction by the Italian forces, threatening an insurrection, but the senior Italian commander, general Fortunato Perni, instead ordered his tanks to open fire on the civilians – an order the tankers refused. Meanwhile, De Vecchi forbade any action against the Germans.[22][23][24] This however did not stop the protests; some junior officers, acting on their own initiative and against the orders (Perni and De Vecchi even tried to dismiss them for this), assumed command and started distributing weapons to the population, and civilian volunteers joined the Italian sailors and soldiers in the defense.[22][23][25]
A battle broke out at 21:15 on 10 September, between the German landing forces (who aimed to occupy the town centre) and the Italian coastal batteries, tanks of the
Outside Italy
In the days following 8 September 1943 most servicemen, left without orders from higher echelons (due to Wehrmacht units ceasing Italian radio communications), were disarmed and shipped to POW camps in the
On 13 September 1943, the
Other Italian forces remained trapped in Yugoslavia following the armistice and some decided to fight alongside the local resistance. Elements of the
On 9 September 1943, Bastia, in Corsica, was the setting of a naval battle between Italian torpedo boats and an attacking German flotilla. It was one of the few successful Italian reactions to Operation Achse, and one of the first acts of resistance by the Italian armed forces against Nazi Germany after the armistice of Cassibile.
Italian military internees
Italian soldiers captured by the Germans numbered around 650,000–700,000 (some 45,000 others were killed in combat, executed, or died during transport), of whom between 40,000 and 50,000 later died in the camps. Most refused cooperation with the Third Reich despite hardship, chiefly to maintain their oath of fidelity to the King. Their former allies designated them Italienische Militär-Internierte ("Italian military internees") to deny them
After disarmament by the Germans, the Italian soldiers and officers were confronted with the choice to continue fighting as allies of the German army (either in the armed forces of the Italian Social Republic, the German puppet regime in northern Italy led by Mussolini, or in Italian "volunteer" units in the German armed forces) or, otherwise, be sent to detention camps in Germany. Those soldiers and officials who refused to recognize the "republic" led by Mussolini were taken as civilian prisoners too. Only 10 percent agreed to enroll.[36]
The Nazis considered the Italians as traitors
Underground resistance
Although other European countries such as
In the first major act of resistance following the German occupation, Italian partisans and local resistance fighters liberated the city of
Elsewhere, the nascent movement began as independently operating groups were organized and led by previously outlawed political parties or by former officers of the
Later the
The main CLN formations included three politically varied groups: the communist
Relations among the groups varied. For example, in 1945, the Garibaldi partisans under Yugoslav Partisan command attacked and killed several partisans of the Catholic and azionista Osoppo groups in the province of Udine. Tensions between the Catholics and the Communists in the movement led to the foundation of the Fiamme Verdi as a separate formation.[47]
A further challenge to the 'national unity' embodied in the CLN came from anarchists as well as dissident-communist Resistance formations, such as Turin's Stella Rossa movement and the Movimento Comunista d'Italia (Rome's largest single anti-fascist force under Occupation), which sought a revolutionary outcome to the conflict and were thus unwilling to collaborate with 'bourgeois parties'.[48]
Partisan movement
Partisan unit sizes varied, depending on logistics (such as the ability to arm, clothe and feed members) and the amount of local support. The basic unit was the squadra (squad), with three or more squads (usually five) forming a distaccamento (detachment). Three or more detachments made a brigata (brigade), of which two or more made a divisione (division). In some places, several divisions formed a gruppo divisione (divisional group). These divisional groups were responsible for a zona d'operazione (operational group).
While the largest contingents operated in mountainous districts of the Alps and the
Like their counterparts elsewhere in Europe, Italian partisans seized whatever arms they could find. The first weapons were brought by ex-soldiers fighting German occupiers from the
Automatic weapons became more common as they were captured in combat and as the Social Republic regime soldiers began defecting, bringing their own guns.
Countryside
The worst conditions and fighting took place in mountainous regions. Resources were scarce and living conditions were terrible. Due to limited supplies, the resistance adopted guerrilla warfare. This involved groups of 40–50 fighters ambushing and harassing the Nazis and their allies. The size of the brigades was reflective of the resources available to the partisans. Resource limits could not support large groups in one area. Mobility was key to their success. Their terrain knowledge enabled narrow escapes in small groups when nearly surrounded by the Germans. The partisans had no permanent headquarters or bases, making them difficult to destroy.[58]
The resistance fighters themselves relied heavily on the local populace for support and supplies. They would often barter or just ask for food, blankets and medicine. When the partisans took supplies from families, they would often hand out
The German punishments backfired and instead strengthened the relationship. Because most resistance fighters were peasants, local populations felt a need to provide for their own. One of the larger engagements was the battle for Monte Battaglia (lit. "Battle Mountain"), a mountaintop that was a part of the Gothic Line. On September 26, 1944, a joint force of 250 Partisans and three companies of U.S. soldiers from the 88th Infantry Division attacked the hill occupied by elements of the German 290th Grenadier Regiment. The Germans were caught completely by surprise. The attackers captured the hill and held it for five days against reinforced German units, securing a path for the Allied advance.
Urban areas
Resistance activities were different in the cities. Some Italians ignored the struggle, while others organized, such as the Patriotic Action Squads and issued propaganda. Groups such as the Patriotic Action Groups carried out military actions. A more expansive support network was devised than in the countryside. Networks of safe houses were established to hide weapons and wounded fighters. Only sympathizers were involved, because compulsion was thought to encourage betrayal. People largely supported the resistance because of economic hardships, especially inflation. Pasta prices tripled and bread prices had quintupled since 1938; hunger unified the underground and general population.[58]
Female partisans
Women played a large role. After the war, about 35,000 Italian women were recognised as female partigiane combattenti (partisan combatants) and 20,000 as patriote (patriots); they broke into these groups based on their activities. The majority were between 20 and 29. They were generally kept separate from male partisans. Few were attached to brigades and were even rarer in mountain brigades. Female countryside volunteers were generally rejected. Women still served in large numbers and had significant influence.[59]
The groups were formed collaboratively by women from diverse political backgrounds. Prominent participants included communists Giovanna Barcellona, Lina Fibbi, Marisa Diena, and Caterina Picolato; socialists Laura Conti and Lina Merlin; actionists Elena Dreher and Ada Gobetti; as well as women associated with the Giustizia e Libertà (Justice and Freedom) movement. Republican and Catholic women, along with those without prior political or ideological commitments, also joined. These groups predominantly operated in the northern midlands of Italy. Scholars attribute this geographic spread to the influence of local women's clothing, which fostered individual initiative and civic awareness.[60]
Initially, the women's groups aimed to support resistance efforts in auxiliary roles.[61] However, they quickly assumed leadership responsibilities in areas such as information dissemination, propaganda, issuing orders, and handling ammunition. Some women even directly engaged in armed resistance as "gappistas".[61][62] Ada Gobetti was among the first to criticize the use of the term "assistance" in the group's name.[63] In 1944, the organization's objectives were reformulated to prioritize activities that broadly promoted women's emancipation.[64]
1944 uprising
During the summer and early fall of 1944, with Allied forces nearby, partisans attacked behind German lines, led by CLNAI. This rebellion led to provisional partisan governments throughout the mountainous regions. Ossola was the most important of these, receiving recognition from Switzerland and Allied consulates there. An intelligence officer told Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, Germany's commander of occupation forces in Italy, that he estimated German casualties fighting partisans in the summer of 1944 amounted to 30,000 to 35,000, including 5,000 confirmed killed.[65] Kesselring considered the number to be exaggerated, and offered his own figure of 20,000: 5,000 killed, between 7,000 and 8,000 missing / "kidnapped" (including deserters), and a similar number seriously wounded. Both sources agreed that partisan losses were less.[66] By the end of the year, German reinforcements and Mussolini's remaining forces crushed the uprising.
In their attempts to suppress the resistance, German and Italian Fascist forces (especially the SS,
-
A woman executed by public hanging in a street of Rome, early 1944
-
German soldier examining the papers of an Italian civilian outside of Milan (1944)
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The Sant'Anna di Stazzema massacre memorial relief
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Memorial stone in Soragna for two Italian partisans – killed in 1944
Foreign contribution
Not all resistance members were Italians; many foreigners had escaped
Aid networks
Another task carried out by the resistance was assisting escaping POWs (an estimated 80,000 were interned in Italy until 8 September 1943),
Liberation
1945 uprising
On 19 April 1945, the CLN called for an insurrection (the April 25 uprising). In
The April insurrection brought to the fore issues between the resistance and the Allies.[72] Given the revolutionary dimension of the insurrection in the industrial centres of Turin, Milan, and Genoa, where concerted factory occupations by armed workers had occurred, the Allied commanders sought to impose control as soon as they took the place of the retreating Germans. While the Kingdom of Italy was the de facto ruler of the south, the National Liberation Committee, still embedded in German territory, existed as a populist organization which posed a threat to the monarchy and property owners in post-war Italy. However the PCI, under directives from Moscow, enabled the Allies to carry out their program of disarming the partisans and discouraged any revolutionary attempt at changing the social system. Instead, the PCI emphasized national unity and "progressive democracy" in order to stake their claim in the post-war political situation. Despite the pressing need to resolve social issues which persisted after the fall of fascism, the resistance movement was subordinated to the interests of Allied leaders in order to maintain the status quo.[72]
Revenge killings
A score-settling campaign (
During the waning hours of the war, Mussolini, accompanied by Marshal Graziani, headed to Milan to meet with Cardinal
On the morning of 27 April 1945, Umberto Lazzaro (nom de guerre 'Partisan Bill'), a partisan with the 52nd Garibaldi Brigade, was checking a column of lorries carrying retreating SS troops at Dongo, Lombardy, near the Swiss border. Lazzaro recognized and arrested Mussolini. The task of executing Mussolini was, according to the official version, given to a 'Colonel Valerio' (identified as Walter Audisio) and the bodies of Mussolini and Petacci were later brought to Milan and hung upside down in the Piazzale Loreto square. Eighteen executed prominent Fascists (including Mussolini, Fernando Mezzasoma, Luigi Gatti, Alessandro Pavolini and Achille Starace) were displayed in the square; this place was significant because the bodies of 15 executed enemies of Mussolini's regime had been displayed in this square the previous year.
The total number of victims of the anti-fascist movement remains unclear; it is estimated that between 12,000 and 26,000 people were killed, usually in extrajudicial executions. The outburst was particularly violent in the northern provinces; according to statistics provided by the Ministry of Interior, some 9,000 people were killed there during April and May 1945 only. Proportionally, the scale of vengeance killings was much greater than in Belgium and significantly above that recorded in France.[76]
Some historians who have dealt with the civil war in Italy have also taken into consideration the phenomenon of post-war violence, placing the end of the civil war beyond the official end of the Second World War in Europe. Therefore, for them, it is not easy to identify a real end date of the phenomenon, which slowly faded away. Some have proposed the Togliatti amnesty of 22 June 1946 as the end of the civil war.[77]
Casualties
According to a book published in 1955 by an Italian ministerial committee on the tenth anniversary of the Liberation, casualties in Italy among the Resistance movement amounted to 35,828 partisans killed in action or executed, and 21,168 partisans mutilated or left disabled by their wounds.[52] Another 32,000 Italian partisans had been killed abroad (in the Balkans and, to a lesser extent, in France).[52] 9,980 Italian civilians had been killed in reprisals by the German and Fascist forces.[52] In 2010, the Ufficio dell'Albo d'Oro of the Italian Ministry of Defence recorded 15,197 partisans killed; however, the Ufficio dell'Albo d'Oro only considered as partisans the members of the Resistance who were civilians before joining the partisans, whereas partisans who were formerly members of the Italian Armed Forces (more than half those killed) were considered as members of their armed force of origin.[78]
Liberation Day
Since 1946, 25 April has been officially celebrated as
Since then, public events in memory of the event, like marches and parades, have been organized annually in all Italian cities - especially in those decorated with military valour for the war of liberation. Among the events of the festival program, there is the solemn homage, by the
Aftermath
Today's
Bella ciao (Italian pronunciation: [ˈbɛlla ˈtʃaːo]; "Goodbye beautiful") is an Italian folk song modified and adopted as an anthem of the Italian resistance movement by the partisans who opposed nazism and fascism, and fought against the occupying forces of Nazi Germany, who were allied with the fascist and collaborationist Italian Social Republic between 1943 and 1945 during the Italian Civil War. Versions of this Italian anti-fascist song continue to be sung worldwide as a hymn of freedom and resistance.[85] As an internationally known hymn of freedom, it was intoned at many historic and revolutionary events. The song originally aligned itself with Italian partisans fighting against Nazi German occupation troops, but has since become to merely stand for the inherent rights of all people to be liberated from tyranny.[86][87]
See also
History of Italy |
---|
Italy portal |
- Anti-fascism
- ANPI, an association of the participants to the Italian resistance
- Volante Rossa, an Italian communist antifascist militia active after WWII
- People's Squads, an Italian left-wing antifascist militia active during the early 1920s
- Lucetti Battalion, an Italian anarchist partisan brigade
- "Bella Ciao", the anthem of the anti-fascist resistance
- Mazzini Society, formed by expatriate Italian anti-Fascists in the United States
- Anni di piombo
- Anarchism in Italy
- German resistance to Nazism
- Japanese dissidence during the Showa period
- Museum of the Liberation of Rome
In works of popular culture
- The Abandoned
- Achtung! Banditi!
- Bebo's Girl
- Beneath a Scarlet Sky
- Blood of the Losers
- Captain Corelli's Mandolin
- Cloak and Dagger
- Cloak & Dagger
- A Day for Lionhearts
- A Day in Life
- The Dirty Dozen: The Deadly Mission
- Escape by Night
- Everybody Go Home
- The Fall of Italy
- 1900
- The Fallen
- The Fascist
- The Four Days of Naples
- From the Clouds to the Resistance
- Gangsters
- General della Rovere
- Harmony in Ultraviolet
- His Day of Glory
- Hornets' Nest
- The Hunchback of Rome
- Johnny the Partisan
- Last Days of Mussolini
- Little Teachers
- Long Night in 1943
- The Man Who Will Come
- Massacre in Rome
- The Mattei Affair
- Miracle at St. Anna
- Paisan
- The Path to the Nest of Spiders
- Porzûs
- Rome, Open City
- Tea with Mussolini
- The Seven Cervi Brothers
- The Sun Still Rises
- Ten Italians for One German
- Two Anonymous Letters
- Wild Blood
References
- ^ G. Bianchi, La Resistenza, in: AA.VV., Storia d'Italia, vol. 8, pp. 368–369.
- ^ Pavone 2006, pp. 256–257.
- ^ Charles F. Delzell, edit., Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26
- ^ "Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919–22" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2021.
- ^ Working Class Defence Organization, Anti-Fascist Resistance and the Arditi Del Popolo in Turin, 1919–22 Archived 19 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Antonio Sonnessa, in the European History Quarterly, Vol. 33, No. 2, 183–218 (2003)
- ^ "Anarchist Century". Anarchist_century.tripod.com. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
- ^ Bruscino, Felicia (25 November 2017). "Il Popolo del 1925 col manifesto antifascista: ritrovata l'unica copia". Ultima Voce (in Italian). Retrieved 23 March 2022.
- ^ James Martin, 'Piero Gobetti's Agonistic Liberalism', History of European Ideas, 32, (2006), pp. 205–222.
- ^ Colombo 1979, pp. 332–338.
- ISBN 978-0-7425-3123-9. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
- ISBN 978-1-349-95028-7.
- ISBN 978-0-19-536396-8. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
- ^ a b James D. Wilkinson (1981). The Intellectual Resistance Movement in Europe. Harvard University Press. p. 224.
- ^ Stanislao G. Pugliese (1999). Carlo Rosselli: socialist heretic and antifascist exile. Harvard University Press. p. 51.
- ^ Pavone 2006, p. 307.
- ^ Colombo 1979, pp. 338–339.
- ^ "Oggi in Spagna, domani in Italia". Archived from the original on 27 December 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
- ^ ""Oggi in Spagna, domani in Italia"" (in Italian). Retrieved 12 May 2023.
- ^ "L'8 settembre 1943" (in Italian). Retrieved 20 September 2023.
- ^ "8 settembre 1943: l'armistizio che divise l'Italia e portò alla guerra civile" (in Italian). Retrieved 20 September 2023.
- ISBN 88-86799-86-1.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Nell'anniversario della battaglia di Piombino, uno storico racconta perché la città merita l'onorificenza La medaglia d'oro, dopo 55 anni "Il massimo riconoscimento va concesso per ristabilire la verità" – Il Tirreno". Archived from the original on 17 February 2020. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Piombino città di eroi – la Repubblica.it". 8 October 2000. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ a b c d e "8 settembre '43: la breve illusione di pace". September 2003. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ "Interventi del Presidente – La Camera dei Deputati". Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ "FR L'Iphigénie of the French Navy - French Torpedo boat of the La Melpoméne class - Allied Warships of WWII - uboat.net". Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ "Seekrieg 1943, September". Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ a b c "Penische fates". Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ "Wrecksite – Carbet". Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ "-La Nazione – Piombino – Taglio del nastro per la banchina "Giorgio Perini"". 26 July 2012. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ "Marinai d'Italia" (PDF). Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ^ "De Vecchi, Cesare Maria in "Dizionario Biografico"". Retrieved 25 April 2017.
- ISBN 978-8852017285.
- ^ "Cefalonia. Ciampi: "Qui cominciò la Resistenza"". rainews24.rai.it (in Italian). Retrieved 23 April 2010.[permanent dead link]
- ISBN 978-8806143145.
- ^ "The Forgotten Italian Military Internees of WWII | the Stillman Exchange". Archived from the original on 17 June 2018. Retrieved 14 April 2018.
- ^ "Home".
- ISBN 978-0-521-70689-6.
- ^ De Felice 1995, p. 22.
- ^ "Storia della guerra civile in Italia" (PDF).
- ^ See the books from Italian historian Giorgio Pisanò Storia della guerra civile in Italia, 1943–1945, 3 voll., Milano, FPE, 1965 and the book L'Italia della guerra civile ("Italy of civil war"), published in 1983 by the Italian writer and journalist Indro Montanelli as the fifteen volume of the Storia d'Italia ("History of Italy") by the same author.
- ^ See as examples the interview to French historian Pierre Milza on the Corriere della Sera of 14 July 2005 (in Italian) and the lessons of historian Thomas Schlemmer at the University of Munchen (in German).
- ^ Payne 2011, p. 202.
- ^ "Senato.it - Resoconto sommario della seduta del 7 marzo 1946, pag.336" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 April 2014.
- ^ Giuseppe Fioravanzo, La Marina dall'8 settembre 1943 alla fine del conflitto, p. 424.
- ISBN 978-1-85532-866-2
- ^ Charles T. O'Reilly; Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945; Lexington Books; 2001; p.218
- ^ Corvisieri, Silverio (1968). Bandiera Rossa nella Resistenza romana. Rome: Samona e Savelli.
- ^ a b c d Moseley, Roger (2004). Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce. Taylor Trade Publishing.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Longhi, Silvano (2010). Die Juden und der Widerstand gegen den Faschismus in Italien: 1943 – 1945. Berlin.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Roberto Battaglia, Storia della Resistenza italiana, pp. 336–339.
- ^ a b c d Giuseppe Fioravanzo, La Marina dall'8 settembre 1943 alla fine del conflitto, p. 433.
- ISBN 9788849811971– via Google Books.
- ^ "This Day in History — 9/6/1944 – Italian resistance fighters persevere". History.com. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
- ^ “World War II: the Encyclopedia of the War Years, 1941–1945” p. 360
- ^ "H-Net Review: Andrea Peto on Women and the Italian Resistance, 1943–45". H-Net. msu.edu. Archived from the original on 6 December 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2013.
- ISBN 88-7904-001-4.
- ^ a b c Behan, Tom. The Italian Resistance: Fascists, Guerrillas and the Allies. London: Pluto, 2009. Print.
- ^ Slaughter, Jane. Women and the Italian Resistance: 1943–1945. Denver, CO: Arden, 1997. Print.
- ^ Marina Addis Saba, Partigiane. Tutte le donne della resistenza, Milan, Mursia Editore, 1998, pp. 40-50, ISBN 88-425-2299-6.
- ^ a b MYmovies.it. "Nome di battaglia donna". MYmovies.it (in Italian). Retrieved 30 March 2020.
- ^ Gabriella Bonansea, Donne nella resistenza, in Enzo Collotti, Renato Sandri, Fediano Sessi (edited by), Dizionario della Resistenza, Turin, Einaudi, 2000, p. 272.
- ^ Patrizia Gabrielli, Il 1946, le donne, la Repubblica, Rome, Donzelli, 2009, p. 45-46.
- ^ Franca Pieroni Bortolotti, Le donne della Resistenza antifascista e la questione femminile in Emilia (1943–45), in Donne e Resistenza in Emilia-Romagna, vol. 2, Milan, evangelist, p. 77.
- ^ O'Reilly, Charles (2001). Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945. Oxford.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 9781429945431.
- ^ Gia Marie Amella. "Hidden archive exposes WWII slaughters - CNN.com". Edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
- ISBN 978-88-7424-766-0.
- ^ Dunning, George (1955). Where bleed the many. London, UK: Elek Books Limited.
- ^ "British prisoners of the Second World War and the Korean War". The National Archives. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 19 June 2013.
- ^ Basil Davidson, Special Operations Europe: Scenes from the Anti-Nazi War (1980), pp. 340/360
- ^ a b Ginsborg, Paul (1990). A History of Contemporary Italy. Penguin Book. pp. 57–70.
- ^ Lampredi, Aldo (20 April 2008). "Così fucilammo Mussolini e la Petacci" (PDF). Patria Indipendente (in Italian). Retrieved 2 November 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-230-10183-8.
- ^ See the interview with Ferruccio Parri, on "Corriere della Sera" 15th November 1997. (in Italian)
- ^ Keith Lowe, Savage continent, London 2012, ISBN 9780241962220
- ^ "Togliatti Guardasigilli, l'amnistia criticata del 1946" (in Italian). Retrieved 14 February 2022.
- ^ http://www.campagnadirussia.info/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/I_caduti_del_fronte_orientale.pdf Archived 2 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine [bare URL PDF]
- ISBN 978-88-15-23341-7.
- ^ "Italy celebrates Liberation Day – Politics – ANSAMed.it". Ansamed.info. 4 June 1944. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
- JSTOR 442274.
- ^ "Chi Siamo". Website. ANPI.it. Archived from the original on 2 May 2011. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
- ^ "Riscoprire I Valori Della Resistenza Nella Costituzione" (in Italian). Retrieved 22 October 2022.
- ^ "Festa dell'anpi". anpi.it. Archived from the original on 24 May 2010. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
- ^ "Bella ciao, significato e testo: perché la canzone della Resistenza non appartiene (solo) ai comunisti" (in Italian). 13 September 2022. Retrieved 21 October 2022.
- ^ "ATENE – Comizio di chiusura di Alexis Tsipras". Archived from the original on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2015.
- ^ "Non solo Tsipras: "Bella ciao" cantata in tutte le lingue del mondo Guarda il video – Corriere TV" [Not only Tsipras: "Bella ciao" sung in all languages of the world Watch the video – Corriere TV]. video.corriere.it (in Italian).
Bibliography
- Colombo, Arturo (1979). Partiti e ideologie del movimento antifascista in: Storia d'Italia, vol. 8 (in Italian). De Agostini.[ISBN unspecified]
- De Felice, Renzo (1995). Rosso e Nero [Red and Black] (in Italian). Baldini & Castoldi. ISBN 88-85987-95-8.
- ISBN 978-88-339-1676-7.
- Payne, Stanley G. (2011). Civil War in Europe, 1905-1949. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139499644.
External links
- Italy | European Resistance Archive
- (in Italian) ANPI – Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d'Italia
- (in Italian) ANCFARGL – Associazione Nazionale Combattenti Forze Armate Regolari Guerra di Liberazione
- (in Italian) INSMLI – Istituto Nazionale per la Storia del Movimento di Liberazione in Italia
- (in Italian) Il portale della guerra di Liberazione
- Anarchist partisans in the Italian Resistance