Restoration (Scotland)
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The Restoration was the return of the monarchy to Scotland in 1660 after the period of the
As military commander of the Commonwealth's largest armed force,
Charles died in 1685 and his brother the Duke of York succeeded him as
The economic conditions of the period were generally favourable, although the restoration of Scottish independence reinstated the economic border with England and English tariffs. The restoration of the monarchy also saw the restoration of the nobility to political power, although they may have exercised their power with more caution. It also saw the rise of the lairds, who continued to gain new local political powers. There was an attempt to restore the theatre to Scotland, which had suffered from the lack of a court and the hostility of the kirk. The Restoration saw the introduction of a style of country house among the Scottish nobility that encouraged a move towards a more leisure-oriented architecture. As in England, sculpture was dominated by foreign professionals. Scotland produced notable artists and was also visited by many important continental artists. The period between 1679 and 1689 saw the foundation of many institutions that would be important in Scottish cultural and intellectual life.
Background: civil wars and Commonwealth
In 1638, reforms imposed by
Royalists and moderates in both countries rejected this on nationalist grounds, as did religious Independents like Oliver Cromwell, who opposed any state-ordered church. The Covenanters and their English allies considered the Independent-dominated New Model Army a bigger threat than the Royalists and when the First Civil War ended in 1647, negotiated to restore Charles to power. In return, he agreed to impose Presbyterianism in England and suppress the Independents but refused to become a Presbyterian himself. This split the Covenanters into Engagers, who were willing to accept this, and the Kirk Party or Whiggamores, who were not. After Cromwell's victory in the Second English Civil War, he installed the Kirk Party as the government of Scotland, who then expelled Engagers from the General Assembly.[2]
This alliance ended with the execution of Charles in January 1649; as
After the
Unlike England, 95% of Scots belonged to the kirk and shared the same Calvinist doctrine; conflict was primarily over governance, with the victors expelling their opponents. The General Assembly was split between
End of the republic and return of Charles II
As military commander of the Commonwealth's largest armed force, Monck was instrumental in the restoration of Charles II. After the death of Cromwell in 1658, Monck remained aloof from the political manoeuvring in London that led to the brief establishment of a regime under the protector's son Richard Cromwell and after its fall the subsequent contest for power between the army leaders. When this proved incapable of producing a stable government in 1659 Monck opened negotiations with Charles II and began a slow march south with his army. After reaching London he restored the English Long Parliament that had existed at the beginning of the civil wars. This body, having received assurances from Charles II, voted for a restoration of the monarchy in England and then dissolved itself. This created a de facto restoration of the monarchy in Scotland, but without any safeguards as to the constitutional position in the country. Scottish notables were in a weak position in negotiations with the crown as to what the settlement would be.[9] Charles II gave Monck the title Duke of Albemarle in gratitude for his part in the Restoration.[10]
Charles was proclaimed king in Edinburgh on 14 May 1660 (for the second time: the first having been more than ten years earlier on 6 February 1649). He was not crowned again in Scotland (having been previously crowned at Scone in 1651). The Restoration "presented an occasion of universal celebration and rejoicing throughout Scotland".[11] Charles II summoned his parliament on 1 January 1661, which began to undo all that been forced on his father Charles I. The Rescissory Act 1661 made all legislation back to 1633 "void and null".[12]
General pardon and exceptions
On 9 September 1662 the
A few members of the previous regime were tried and found guilty of treason.
Settlement
Under the eventual political settlement Scotland regained its independent system of law, parliament and kirk, but also regained the
Restoration Episcopate
Presbyterians had hoped that Charles would implement a
Charles II's commissioners (1661–1685)
Middleton (1661–1663)
The King's first political action in Scotland was to appoint officers of state and members of the privy council without reference to parliament. The royalist William Cunningham, 9th Earl of Glencairn became Chancellor and John Leslie, Earl of Rothes became President of the council. A new Scottish Council was created in London, which was headed by James Maitland, Earl of Lauderdale. Former Covernanter and royalist soldier John Middleton, newly raised to be Earl of Middleton, was appointed as Commissioner.[28] A new parliament met on 1 January 1661, later known by its presbyterian critics as the "drunken parliament", it passed 393 Acts, particularly supporting the episcopalian structure of the church favoured by Middleton and the authority of the king over government and parliament. In 1663 Middleton attempted to pass an act that would have compelled all office holders to declare that the two covenants were unlawful and seditious. This was a direct attack on former covenanters like the King's favourite Lauderdale and as a result Middleton was recalled and replaced with Rothes.[29]
Rothes (1663–1666)
Rothes acted as a client of Lauderdale. In 1663 parliament passed an "Act Against Separation and Disobedience to Ecclesiastical Authority", popularly known as the "Bishop's Dragnet". It declared dissenting ministers as seditious persons and allowed the imposition of heavy fines on those who failed to attend the parish churches. Soon after parliament was dismissed and would not be recalled for six years. In 1666 a group of dissenters from Galloway captured the government's local military commander, Sir James Turner, and marched on Edinburgh. They probably numbered at the most 3,000 men and by the time they were defeated at the Battle of Rullion Green, they had dwindled to less than a third of that number. Of fifty prisoners, thirty-three were executed, two after torture, and the rest were transported to Barbados. There were then a series of arrests of suspected persons. The rising resulted in the fall of Rothes as Commissioner and Lauderdale now returned from London to take up the role.[30]
Lauderdale (1666–1679)
Lauderdale attempted a more conciliatory policy, issuing Letters of Indulgence in 1669, 1672 and 1679. These allowed evicted ministers to return to their parishes, if they would avoid political dissent. One-hundred and fifty refused to accept the offer and some episcopalians were alienated by the compromise. The failure to reach an accommodation led to a return to severity. Preaching at a conventicle was made punishable by death and attendance was punishable by severe sanctions. In 1674 heritors and masters were made responsible for their tenants and servants and from 1677 they had to enter bonds for the conduct of everyone living on their land. In 1678 3,000 Lowland militia and 6,000 Highlanders, known as the "Highland Host", were billeted in the Covenanting shires as a form of punishment.[31]
In 1679 a group of Covenanters killed Archbishop
Duke of Albany (1679–1685)
The King sent his brother and heir to Edinburgh largely to remove him from London as a result of the Exclusion Crisis of 1679–1681, during which the English "Country Party" attempted to exclude the openly Catholic James from the three British thrones.[33] He took up residency in Holyrood Palace the early 1680s, running what was in effect a small court.[34]
The dissenters, led by
In 1684 the remaining Society People posted an Apologetical Declaration on several market crosses, which informed servants of the government that they pursued the lives of its members at the risk of their own. In response to this new element of outright political sedition, the Scottish Privy Council authorised extrajudicial field executions of those caught in arms or those who refused to swear loyalty to the king.
James VII and the Glorious Revolution (1685–1689)
Charles died in 1685 and his brother succeeded him as James VII of Scotland (and II of England). James put Catholics in key positions in the government and even attendance at a conventicle was made punishable by death. He disregarded parliament, purged the council and forced through
It was believed that the king would be succeeded by his daughter
William called a
The final settlement, completed by William's Second parliament in 1690, restored Presbyterianism and abolished the bishops, who had generally supported James. Remaining ministers outed in 1662 were restored, bringing an end to the persecution of the Cameronians, and leaving only a remnant outside of the church. The General Assembly of 1692 refused to reinstate even those Episcopalian ministers who pledged to accept Presbyterianism. However, the king issued two acts of indulgence in 1693 and 1695, allowing those who accepted him as king to return to the church and around a hundred took advantage of the offer. All but the hardened Jacobites would be given toleration in 1707, leaving only a small remnant of Jacobite episcopalians.[38]
Economy
Under the Commonwealth, the country had been relatively highly taxed, but gained access to English markets.
Society
The nobility had been dominant in the politics of Scotland in the first half of the seventeenth century, culminating in their triumph in the period of the Bishops' Wars. However, they lost this status in the Commonwealth period, as the Protectorate regime largely ruled without them. They were restored to authority along with the monarchy and the traditional institutions of the Privy Council and Parliament. However, Rosalind Mitchison argues that their authority was used much more cautiously due to the events of the civil war period.[43] As feudal distinctions declined the barons and tenants-in-chief merged to form the lairds. Under the Commonwealth they had supplied the Justices of the Peace, a post that had enjoyed an expanded role that was only partly reversed at the Restoration. They also gained authority through becoming Commissioner of Supply, a post created in 1667, and which was gave them responsibilities for collecting what became the local cess tax.[44] The passing of a series of improving statues, that allowed landholders to move boundaries, roads and carry out enclosures also benefited this group, as did legislation that returned virtual serfdom for groups such as miners and saltworkers.[44]
Scotland had a much higher rate of witchcraft prosecutions for its population than either England[45] or the European average.[46] The overwhelming majority were in the Lowlands,[47] where the kirk had more control, despite the evidence that basic magical beliefs were very widespread in the Highlands.[48] Under the Commonwealth the English judges who took over the running of the legal system were hostile to the use of torture and often sceptical of the evidence it produced, resulting in a decline in witchcraft prosecutions.[49] In an attempt to gain support among the landholding orders, Sheriff's courts were re-established and Justices of the Peace returned in 1656. The result was a wave of witchcraft cases, with 102 in the period 1657–1659. The limitations on prosecutions were fully reversed with the Restoration, and there was a flood of over 600 cases, thought to be the largest outbreak in Scottish history.[50] This alarmed the restored Privy Council, leading it to insist on the necessity of its commission for an arrest or prosecution, and the banning of judicial torture.[48] Prosecutions began to decline as trials were more tightly controlled by the judiciary and government, torture was more sparingly used and standards of evidence were raised.[49] The exposure of prickers as frauds in 1662 removed a major form of evidence.[51] The Lord Advocate George Mackenzie made efforts to make prosecutions ineffective.[48] There may also have been a growing popular scepticism, and, with relative peace and stability, the economic and social tensions that may have contributed to accusations were reduced, although there were occasional local outbreaks until the statute supporting prosecutions was repealed in 1736.[49]
Culture
Theatre
The loss of a royal court when
Architecture
The Restoration saw the introduction of a style of country house among the Scottish nobility that encouraged a move towards a more leisure-oriented architecture already adopted in continental Europe.
Art
Sculpture was dominated by foreign professionals. The equestrian statue of Charles II outside
Intellectual life
The period between 1679 and 1689 saw the foundation of a large number institutions that would be important in Scottish cultural and intellectual life. These included the Royal College of Physicians in 1681, and three professors of medicine were appointed at the University of Edinburgh in 1685. James VII created the Order of the Thistle in 1687 and the Advocates Library, planned since 1682, was opened in 1689. The offices of Royal Physician, Geographer Royal and Historiographer Royal were founded between 1680 and 1682.[64]
Immediately after the Restoration there was a purge of Presbyterians from the universities, but most of the intellectual advances of the preceding period were preserved.[64] The five Scottish universities recovered from the disruption of the preceding decades with a lecture-based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science, offering a high-quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry.[65] All saw the establishment or re-establishment of chairs of mathematics. Astronomy was facilitated by the building of observatories at St. Andrews and at King's and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen. Robert Sibbald was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh and he co-founded the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681.[66]
Footnotes
- ^ Today, Presbyterian or Episcopalian implies differences in governance and doctrine but this was not the case in the 17th century. Episcopalian meant rule by bishops, usually appointed by the monarch; Presbyterian rule by Elders, nominated by congregations. The kirk was Calvinist in doctrine, the Church of England closer to Lutheranism; this is why a series of attempted unions in the 17th century, whether by James VI, Charles I, Covenanters or Episcoplians were unsuccessful
- ^ Also called the First Anglo-Scots War
Notes
- ^ Robertson 2014, p. 125.
- ^ Mitchison 2002, pp. 223–224.
- ^ Macleod 2009, pp. 5–7.
- ^ Miller 1978, p. 15.
- ^ Morrill 1990, p. 162.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 225–226.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 221–224.
- ^ Holfelder 1998, p. 213.
- ^ a b c d e f g Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 241–246.
- ^ Grossman 2007, p. 226.
- ^ Jackson 2003, p. 14.
- ^ Jackson 2003, p. 78.
- ^ a b Scottish Parliament 1662, Pardon.
- ^ a b Brown 2012.
- ^ Scottish Parliament 1662b, Exceptions.
- ^ a b Harris 2005, p. 111.
- ^ Gordon 1890, pp. 237–239.
- ^ Aikman 1842, p. 50–51.
- ^ Howie & M'Gavin 1828, pp. 73–75.
- ^ Crooks.
- ^ Swinton 1898, pp. 237–239.
- ^ Morison 1803, p. 42.
- ^ Edinburgh Magazine staff 1819, p. 582.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, p. 29.
- ^ a b Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 231–234.
- ^ McCoy 1974, p. 216.
- ^ Mitchison 2002, p. 253.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, p. 232.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 233–234.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 235–236.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 237–238.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 238–239.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, p. 239.
- ^ Smith 2007, p. 99.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 239–241.
- ^ Lynch 1992, p. 297.
- ^ Mitchison 1983, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, pp. 252–253.
- ^ Mackie, Lenman & Parker 1991, p. 226.
- ^ Whatley 2000, p. 17.
- ^ a b Houston 2002, p. 16.
- ^ Mitchison 2002, pp. 254–255.
- ^ Mitchison 1983, pp. 86–70.
- ^ a b Mitchison 1983, p. 79.
- ^ Edwards 2010, p. 32.
- ^ Goodare 2002, pp. 644–645.
- ^ Wormald 1991, pp. 168–169.
- ^ a b c Mitchison 1983, pp. 88–90.
- ^ a b c Levak 2002, pp. 166–180.
- ^ Lynch 1992, p. 286.
- ^ Goodare 2002, pp. 644–145.
- ^ Brown 2011, pp. 253–254.
- ^ Jackson 2003, p. 17.
- ^ Tobin 1972, p. 5.
- ^ Findlay 1998, pp. 62–73.
- ^ a b c Colvin 1995, pp. 755–758.
- ^ Summerson 1993, pp. 330 and 333.
- ^ Gifford 1989, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Fenwick 1989, pp. 73–78.
- ^ Howarth 1991, p. 29.
- ^ Clifford 1991, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Thomas 2012, pp. 198–199.
- ^ Waterhouse 1994, p. 123.
- ^ a b Lynch 1992, p. 262.
- ^ Anderson 2003, p. 219–228.
- ^ Devine 2012, p. 373.
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- Scottish Parliament (September 1662b). Act containing some exceptions from the act of indemnity. The Records of the Parliaments of Scotland to 1707, University of St Andrews.
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Further reading
- Browning, Andrew (1996). "228. Order of Council for the Restoration of Episcopacy, 1661". English Historical Documents: 1660–1714. Early modern. Vol. 6 (2, illustrated, reprint, reissue ed.). Routledge. p. 608. ISBN 978-0-415-14371-4.