Restoration of the Everglades
An ongoing effort to remedy damage inflicted during the 20th century on the Everglades, a region of tropical wetlands in southern Florida, is the most expensive and comprehensive environmental repair attempt in history.[1][2] The degradation of the Everglades became an issue in the United States in the early 1970s after a proposal to construct an airport in the Big Cypress Swamp. Studies indicated the airport would have destroyed the ecosystem in South Florida and Everglades National Park.[3] After decades of destructive practices, both state and federal agencies are looking for ways to balance the needs of the natural environment in South Florida with urban and agricultural centers that have recently and rapidly grown in and near the Everglades.
In response to floods caused by hurricanes in 1947, the
When high levels of
A commission appointed by Governor Chiles published a report in 1995 stating that South Florida was unable to sustain its growth, and the deterioration of the environment was negatively affecting daily life for residents in South Florida. The environmental decline was predicted to harm tourism and commercial interests if no actions were taken to halt current trends. Results of an eight-year study that evaluated the C&SF were submitted to the United States Congress in 1999. The report warned that if no action was taken the region would rapidly deteriorate. A strategy called the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) was enacted to restore portions of the Everglades, Lake Okeechobee, the Caloosahatchee River, and Florida Bay to undo the damage of the past 50 years. It would take 30 years and cost $7.8 billion to complete. Though the plan was passed into law in 2000, it has been compromised by political and funding problems.
Background
The Everglades are part of a very large watershed that begins in the vicinity of Orlando. The Kissimmee River drains into Lake Okeechobee, a 730-square-mile (1,900 km2) lake with an average depth of 9 feet (2.7 m). During the wet season when the lake exceeds its capacity, the water leaves the lake in a very wide and shallow river, approximately 100 miles (160 km) long and 60 miles (97 km) wide.[4] This wide and shallow flow is known as sheetflow. The land gradually slopes toward Florida Bay, the historical destination of most of the water leaving the Everglades. Before drainage attempts, the Everglades comprised 4,000 square miles (10,000 km2), taking up a third of the Florida peninsula.[5]
Since the early 19th century the Everglades have been a subject of interest for agricultural development. The first attempt to drain the Everglades occurred in 1882 when
The
By the 1960s, urban development and agricultural use had decreased the size of the Everglades considerably. The remaining 25% of the Everglades in its original state is protected in Everglades National Park, but the park was established before the C&SF, and it depended upon the actions of the C&SF to release water. As Miami and other metropolitan areas began to intrude on the Everglades in the 1960s, political battles took place between park management and the C&SF when insufficient water in the park threw ecosystems into chaos. Fertilizers used in the EAA began to alter soil and hydrology in Everglades National Park, causing the proliferation of exotic plant species.[8] A proposition to build a massive jetport in the Big Cypress Swamp in 1969 focused attention on the degraded natural systems in the Everglades. For the first time, the Everglades became a subject of environmental conservation.[9]
Everglades as a priority
Environmental protection became a national priority in the 1970s.
In 1976, Everglades National Park was declared an
Kissimmee River
In the 1960s, the C&SF came under increased scrutiny from government overseers and conservation groups. Critics maintained its size was comparable to the Tennessee Valley Authority's dam-building projects during the Great Depression, and that the construction had run into the billions of dollars without any apparent resolution or plan.[19] The projects of the C&SF have been characterized as part of "crisis and response" cycles that "ignored the consequence for the full system, assumed certainty of the future, and succeeded in solving the momentary crisis, but set in motion conditions that exaggerate future crises".[20] The last project, to build a canal to straighten the winding floodplain of the Kissimmee River that had historically fed Lake Okeechobee which in turn fed the Everglades, began in 1962. Marjory Stoneman Douglas later wrote that the C&SF projects were "interrelated stupidity", crowned by the C-38 canal.[21] Designed to replace a meandering 90-mile (140 km) river with a 52-mile (84 km) channel, the canal was completed in 1971 and cost $29 million. It supplanted approximately 45,000 acres (180 km2) of marshland with retention ponds, dams, and vegetation.[22] Loss of habitat has caused the region to experience a drastic decrease of waterfowl, wading birds, and game fish.[23] The reclaimed floodplains were taken over by agriculture, bringing fertilizers and insecticides that washed into Lake Okeechobee. Even before the canal was finished, conservation organizations and sport fishing and hunting groups were calling for the restoration of the Kissimmee River.[22]
Arthur R. Marshall led the efforts to undo the damage. According to Douglas, Marshall was successful in portraying the Everglades from the Kissimmee Chain of Lakes to Florida Bay—including the atmosphere, climate, and limestone—as a single organism. Rather than remaining the preserve of conservation organizations, the cause of restoring the Everglades became a priority for politicians. Douglas observed, "Marshall accomplished the extraordinary magic of taking the Everglades out of the bleeding-hearts category forever".[24] At the insistent urging of Marshall, newly elected Governor Bob Graham announced the formation of the "Save Our Everglades" campaign in 1983, and in 1985 Graham lifted the first shovel of backfill for a portion of the C-38 canal.[25] Within a year the area was covered with water returning to its original state.[26] Graham declared that by the year 2000, the Everglades would resemble its predrainage state as much as possible.[25] The Kissimmee River Restoration Project was approved by Congress in the Water Resources Development Act of 1992. The project was estimated to cost $578 million to convert only 22 miles (35 km) of the canal; the cost was designed to be divided between the state of Florida and the U.S. government, with the state being responsible for purchasing land to be restored.[27] A project manager for the Army Corps of Engineers explained in 2002, "What we're doing on this scale is going to be taken to a larger scale when we do the restoration of the Everglades".[28] The entire project was originally estimated to be completed by 2011,[27] but was completed in July 2021.[29] In all, about 44 miles (71 km) of the Kissimmee River was restored, plus 20,000 acres of wetlands.[30]
Water quality
Attention to water quality was focused in South Florida in 1986 when a widespread algal bloom occurred in one-fifth of Lake Okeechobee. The bloom was discovered to be the result of fertilizers from the Everglades Agricultural Area.[31] Although laws stated in 1979 that the chemicals used in the EAA should not be deposited into the lake, they were flushed into the canals that fed the Everglades Water Conservation Areas, and eventually pumped into the lake.[11] Microbiologists discovered that, although phosphorus assists plant growth, it destroys periphyton, one of the basic building blocks of marl in the Everglades. Marl is one of two types of Everglades soil, along with peat; it is found where parts of the Everglades are flooded for shorter periods of time as layers of periphyton dry.[32] Most of the phosphorus compounds also rid peat of dissolved oxygen and promote algae growth, causing native invertebrates to die, and sawgrass to be replaced with invasive cattails that grow too tall and thick to allow nesting for birds and alligators.[33] Tested water showed 500 parts per billion (ppb) of phosphorus near sugarcane fields. State legislation in 1987 mandated a 40% reduction of phosphorus by 1992.
Attempts to correct phosphorus levels in the Everglades met with resistance. The sugarcane industry, dominated by two companies named
A different concern about water quality arose when
Everglades Forever Act
In an attempt to resolve the political quagmire over water quality, Governor Lawton Chiles introduced a bill in 1994 to clean up water within the EAA that was being released to the lower Everglades. The bill stated that the "Everglades ecosystem must be restored both in terms of water quality and water quantity and must be preserved and protected in a manner that is long term and comprehensive".[38] It ensured the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) and the South Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) would be responsible for researching water quality, enforcing water supply improvement, controlling exotic species, and collecting taxes, with the aim of decreasing the levels of phosphorus in the region. It allowed for purchase of land where pollutants would be sent to "treat and improve the quality of waters coming from the EAA".[39]
Critics of the bill argued that the deadline for meeting the standards was unnecessarily delayed until 2006—a period of 12 years—to enforce better water quality. They also maintained that it did not force sugarcane farmers, who were the primary polluters, to pay enough of the costs, and increased the threshold of what was an acceptable amount of phosphorus in water from 10 ppb to 50 ppb.[40] Governor Chiles initially named it the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Act, but Douglas was so unimpressed with the action it took against polluters that she wrote to Chiles and demanded her name be stricken from it.[40] Despite criticism, the Florida legislature passed the Act in 1994. The SFWMD stated that its actions have exceeded expectations earlier than anticipated,[41] by creating Stormwater Treatment Areas (STA) within the EAA that contain a calcium-based substance such as lime rock layered between peat, and filled with calcareous periphyton. Early tests by the Army Corps of Engineers revealed this method reduced phosphorus levels from 80 ppb to 10 ppb.[42] The STAs are intended to treat water until the phosphorus levels are low enough to be released into the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge or other WCAs.
Wildlife concerns
The intrusion of urban areas into wilderness has had a substantial impact on wildlife, and several species of animals are considered endangered in the Everglades region. One animal that has benefited from endangered species protection is the American alligator (
The American Crocodile (
The most
Perhaps the most dramatic loss of any group of animals has been to
Invasive species
Around 6 million people moved to South Florida between 1940 and 1965. With a thousand people moving to Miami each week, urban development quadrupled.[50] As the human population grew rapidly, the problem of exotic plant and animal species also grew. Many species of plants were brought into South Florida from Asia, Central America, or Australia as decorative landscaping. Exotic animals imported by the pet trade have escaped or been released. Biological controls that keep invasive species smaller in size and fewer in number in their native lands often do not exist in the Everglades, and they compete with the embattled native species for food and space. Of imported plant species, melaleuca trees (Melaleuca quinquenervia) have caused the most problems. Melaleucas grow on average 100 feet (30 m) in the Everglades, as opposed to 25 to 60 feet (7.6 to 18.3 m) in their native Australia. They were brought to southern Florida as windbreaks and deliberately seeded in marsh areas because they absorb vast amounts of water. In a region that is regularly shaped by fire, melaleucas are fire-resistant and their seeds are more efficiently spread by fire. They are too dense for wading birds with large wingspans to nest in, and they choke out native vegetation.[51] Costs of controlling melaleucas topped $2 million in 1998 for Everglades National Park. In Big Cypress National Preserve, melaleucas covered 186 square miles (480 km2) at their most pervasive in the 1990s.[52]
Brazilian pepper (
The species that is causing the most impediment to restoration is the Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum), introduced in 1965. The fern grows rapidly and thickly on the ground, making passage for land animals such as black bears and panthers problematic. The ferns also grow as vines into taller portions of trees, and fires climb the ferns in "fire ladders" to scorch portions of the trees that are not naturally resistant to fire.[54]
Several animal species have been introduced to Everglades waterways. Many tropical fish are released, the most detrimental being the blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), which builds large nests in shallow waters. Tilapia also consume vegetation which would normally be used by young native fishes for cover and protection.[55]
Reptiles have a particular affinity for the South Florida ecosystem. Virtually all lizards appearing in the Everglades have been introduced, such as the brown anole (
Though exotic birds such as parrots and parakeets are also found in the Everglades, their impact is negligible. Conversely, perhaps the animal that causes the most damage to native wildlife is the domestic or feral cat. Across the U.S., cats are responsible for approximately a billion bird deaths annually. They are estimated to number 640 per square mile; cats living in suburban areas have devastating effects on migratory birds and marsh rabbits.[57]
Homestead Air Force Base
Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan
Sustainable South Florida
Despite the successes of the Everglades Forever Act and the decreases in mercury levels, the focus intensified on the Everglades in the 1990s as quality of life in the South Florida metropolitan areas diminished. It was becoming clear that urban populations were consuming increasingly unsustainable levels of natural resources. A report entitled "The Governor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida", submitted to Lawton Chiles in 1995, identified the problems the state and municipal governments were facing. The report remarked that the degradation of the natural quality of the Everglades, Florida Bay, and other bodies of water in South Florida would cause a significant decrease in tourism (12,000 jobs and $200 million annually) and income from compromised commercial fishing (3,300 jobs and $52 million annually).[63] The report noted that past abuses and neglect of the environment had brought the region to "a precipitous juncture" where the inhabitants of South Florida faced health hazards in polluted air and water; furthermore, crowded and unsafe urban conditions hurt the reputation of the state. It noted that though the population had increased by 90% over the previous two decades, registered vehicles had increased by 166%.[63] On the quality and availability of water, the report stated, "[The] frequent water shortages ... create the irony of a natural system dying of thirst in a subtropical environment with over 53 inches of rain per year".[63]
Restoration of the Everglades, however, briefly became a
Central and South Florida Project Restudy
As part of the Water Resources Development Act of 1992, Congress authorized an evaluation of the effectiveness of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project. A report known as the "Restudy", written by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the South Florida Water Management District, was submitted to Congress in 1999. It cited indicators of harm to the system: a 50% reduction in the original Everglades, diminished water storage, harmful timing of water release, an 85 to 90% decrease in wading bird populations over the past 50 years, and the decline of output from commercial fisheries. Bodies of water including
After evaluating ten plans, the Restudy recommended a comprehensive strategy that would cost $7.8 billion over 20 years. The plan advised taking the following actions:
- Create surface water storage reservoirs to capture 1,500,000 acre-feet (1.9 km3) of water in several locations taking up 181,300 acres (734 km2).[69]
- Create water preserve areas between Miami-Dade and Palm Beach and the eastern Everglades to treat runoff water.[69]
- Manage Lake Okeechobee as an ecological resource to avoid the drastic rise and fall of water levels in the lake that are harmful to aquatic plant and animal life and disturb the lake sediments.[69]
- Improve water deliveries to estuaries to reduce the rapid discharge of excess water to the Caloosahatchee and St. Lucie estuaries that upset nutrient balances and cause lesions on fish. Stormwater discharge would be sent instead to reservoirs.[70]
- Increase underground water storage to hold 16 billion US gallons (61 Gl) a day in wells, or reservoirs in the
- Construct treatment wetlands as Stormwater Treatment Areas throughout 35,600 acres (144 km2), that would decrease the amount of pollutants in the environment.[70]
- Improve water deliveries to the Everglades by increasing them at a rate of approximately 26% into Shark River Slough.[70]
- Remove barriers to sheetflow by destroying or removing 240 miles (390 km) of canals and levees, specifically removing the Miami Canal and reconstructing the Tamiami Trail from a highway to culverts and bridges to allow sheetflow to return to a more natural rate of water flow into Everglades National Park.[71]
- Store water in quarries and reuse wastewater by employing existing quarries to supply the South Florida metropolitan area as well as Florida Bay and the Everglades. Construct two wastewater treatment plants capable of discharging 22 billion US gallons (83 Gl) a day to recharge the Biscayne Aquifer.[71]
The implementation of all of the advised actions, the report stated, would "result in the recovery of healthy, sustainable ecosystems throughout south Florida".[72] The report admitted that it did not have all the answers, though no plan could.[73] However, it predicted that it would restore the "essential defining features of the pre-drainage wetlands over large portions of the remaining system", that populations of all animals would increase, and animal distribution patterns would return to their natural states.[73] Critics expressed concern over some unused technology; scientists were unsure if the quarries would hold as much water as was being suggested, and whether the water would harbor harmful bacteria from the quarries. Overtaxing the aquifers was another concern—it was not a technique that had been previously attempted.[74]
Though it was optimistic, the Restudy noted,
It is important to understand that the 'restored' Everglades of the future will be different from any version of the Everglades that has existed in the past. While it certainly will be vastly superior to the current ecosystem, it will not completely match the pre-drainage system. This is not possible, in light of the irreversible physical changes that have made (sic) to the ecosystem. It will be an Everglades that is smaller and somewhat differently arranged than the historic ecosystem. But it will be a successfully restored Everglades, because it will have recovered those hydrological and biological patterns which defined the original Everglades, and which made it unique among the world's wetland systems. It will become a place that kindles the wildness and richness of the former Everglades.[75]
The report was the result of many cooperating agencies that often had conflicting goals. An initial draft was submitted to Everglades National Park management who asserted not enough water would be released to the park quickly enough—that the priority went to delivering water to urban areas. When they threatened to refuse to support it, the plan was rewritten to provide more water to the park. However, the Miccosukee Indians have a reservation in between the park and water control devices, and they threatened to sue to ensure their tribal lands and a $50 million casino would not be flooded.[76] Other special interests were also concerned that businesses and residents would take second priority after nature. The Everglades, however, proved to be a bipartisan cause. The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) was authorized by the Water Resources Development Act of 2000 and signed into law by President Bill Clinton on December 11, 2000. It approved the immediate use of $1.3 billion for implementation to be split by the federal government and other sources.[77]
Implementation
The State of Florida reports that it has spent more than $2 billion on the various projects since CERP was signed. More than 36,000 acres (150 km2) of Stormwater Treatment Areas (STA) have been constructed to filter 2,500 short tons (2,300 t) of phosphorus from Everglades waters. An STA covering 17,000 acres (69 km2) was constructed in 2004, making it the largest environmental restoration project in the world. Fifty-five percent of the land necessary for restoration, totaling 210,167 acres (850.5 km2), has been purchased by the State of Florida. A plan named "Acceler8", to hasten the construction and funding of the project, was put into place, spurring the start of six of eight construction projects, including that of three large reservoirs.[78]
A changing economy, too, hurt the plan. It passed in a year with a record budget surplus, but the climate changed sharply after the terrorist attacks of 2001. Some state officials say the plan, which involves dozens of complex engineering projects, also got bogged down in federal bureaucracy, a victim of "analysis paralysis."
The New York Times, November 2007
Despite the bipartisan goodwill and declarations of the importance of the Everglades, the region still remains in danger. Political maneuvering continues to impede CERP: sugar lobbyists promoted a bill in the Florida legislature in 2003 that increased the acceptable amount of phosphorus in Everglades waterways from 10 ppb to 15 ppb and extended the deadline for the mandated decrease by 20 years.
Reassessment of CERP
Florida still receives a thousand new residents daily and lands slated for restoration and wetland recovery are often bought and sold before the state has a chance to bid on them. The competitive pricing of real estate also drives it beyond the purchasing ability of the state.
In September 2008 the
In January 2010, work began on the C-111 canal, built in the 1960s to drain irrigated farmland, to reconstruct it to keep from diverting water from Everglades National Park. Two other projects focusing on restoration were also scheduled to start in 2010.[92] Governor Crist announced the same month that $50 million would be earmarked for Everglades restoration.[93] In April of the same year, a federal district court judge sharply criticized both state and federal failures to meet deadlines, describing the cleanup efforts as being slowed by "glacial delay" and government neglect of environmental law enforcement "incomprehensible".[94]
See also
- Draining and development of the Everglades
- Everglades National Park
- Geography and ecology of the Everglades
- History of Miami, Florida
- Indigenous people of the Everglades region
Notes and references
- ^ Grunwald, p. 2.
- ^ Schmitt, Eric (October 20, 2000). "Everglades Restoration Plan Passes House, With Final Approval Seen", The New York Times, p. 1.
- ^ J. V. F. (October, 1969). "Special Feature: Recent Developments in Everglades Controversy", BioScience, 19 (10), pp. 926–927.
- ^ Lodge, p. 20.
- ^ Lodge, p. 14.
- ^ Dovell, Junius (July 1948). "The Everglades: A Florida Frontier", Agricultural History 22 (3), pp. 187–197.
- ISBN 0-9634030-2-8
- ISBN 0-9634030-2-8
- ^ Mueller, Marti (October 10, 1969). "Everglades Jetport: Academy Prepares a Model", Science, New Series, 166 (3902), pp. 202–203.
- ^ "Issue of the Year: The Environment". Time. January 4, 1971. Archived from the original on December 21, 2008. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ a b c Gunderson, Lance, et al. (1995). "Lessons from the Everglades", BioScience, 45, Supplement: Science and Biodiversity Policy, pp. S66–S73.
- ^ a b "History". Fakahatchee State Preserve. Friends of Fakahatchee State Preserve. 2005. Archived from the original on May 15, 2008. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ Grunwald, p. 262
- ^ Nixon, Richard (February 8, 1972). "51 - Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved May 10, 2008.
- ^ "Laws & Policies". Big Cypress National Preserve. National Park Service. April 20, 2008. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^
"Everglades National Park, Florida, United States of America". United Nations Environment Program. March 2003. Archived from the originalon May 10, 2008. Retrieved May 19, 2008.
- ^ "Park Statistics". Everglades National Park. National Park Service. July 24, 2006. Retrieved May 21, 2008.
- ISBN 0-9634030-2-8
- ^ Davis, Jack (January 2003). "'Conservation is now a dead word': Marjory Stoneman Douglas and the transformation of American environmentalism." Environmental History, 8 (1) pp. 53–76.
- ISBN 0-9634030-2-8
- ^ Douglas (1987), p. 229.
- ^ a b "Environmental Setting: The Altered System". Circular 1134. U.S. Geological Survey. November 2, 2004. Archived from the original on May 13, 2008. Retrieved May 19, 2008.
- ^ "Kissimmee River Restoration". Army Corps of Engineers Jacksonville District. Archived from the original on April 13, 2008. Retrieved May 19, 2008.
- ^ Douglas (1987), p. 227.
- ^ a b Angier, Natalie (August 6, 1984). "Now You See It, Now You Don't". Time. Archived from the original on May 12, 2009. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ Douglas (1987), p. 232.
- ^ a b "Kissimmee River History". Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2006. Archived from the original on June 16, 2008. Retrieved May 19, 2008.
- The Miami Herald
- ^ Cox, Kelly (July 23, 2021). "Kissimmee River Project - Largest Restoration Initiative of its Kind - Complete After Nearly 30 Years". Audubon Florida. Retrieved June 17, 2023.
- ^ "Kissimmee River Restoration Project Fact Sheet 2022" (PDF). South Florida Water Management District. 2022. Retrieved June 17, 2023.
- ^ Lodge, p. 230.
- ^ Lodge, p. 37.
- ISBN 0-9634030-2-8
- ^ Grunwald, p. 282.
- ^ Grunwald, pp. 286–287.
- ^ a b c Lodge, pp. 231–233.
- ^ "Mercury Studies in the Florida Everglades". FS-166-96. U.S. Geological Survey. November 9, 2004. Retrieved June 1, 2008.
- ^ "Florida Statutes (Supplement 1994) [Everglades Forever Act]". Chapter 373: Water Resources, Part IV. Management and Storage of Surface Waters, 373.4592 Everglades improvement and management. University of Miami School of Law. 1997. Archived from the original on October 28, 2008. Retrieved May 21, 2008.
- ^ Olexa, Michael; D'Isernia, Luke; Minton, Laura; Miller, Dulcy; Corbett, Sarah. "Handbook of Florida Water Regulation: Florida Everglades Forever Act". Chapter 373: Water Resources, Part IV. Management and Storage of Surface Waters, 373.4592 Everglades improvement and management. University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Science. Retrieved May 21, 2008.
- ^ a b Grunwald, p. 301.
- ^ "Long Term Plan Overview". South Florida Water Management District. 2008. Retrieved May 21, 2008.
- ^ "Periphyton-based Stormwater Treatment Area (PSTA) Technology" (PDF). The Journey to Restore America's Everglades. December 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 29, 2008. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
- ^ "American Alligator, Wildlife Species Information". www.fws.gov. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. February 2008. Retrieved July 12, 2008.
- ^ Lodge, p. 236.
- ^ "American Crocodile" (PDF). Multi-Species Recovery Plan for South Florida. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 11, 2008. Retrieved May 24, 2008.
- ^ a b "Florida Panther Frequently Asked Questions". Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on May 24, 2008. Retrieved May 24, 2008.
- ^ Grunwald, p. 293.
- ISBN 0-9634030-2-8
- ^ Lodge, pp. 233–234.
- ^ Grunwald, p. 229.
- ^ Lodge, pp. 237–240.
- ^ Tasker, Georgia (August 22, 1998). "Federal Experts Warn of Alien Plant Invasion", The Miami Herald.
- ^ Lodge, p. 241.
- ^ Lodge, p. 242.
- ^ Lodge, pp. 243–244.
- ^ Lodge, p. 244.
- ^ Lodge, pp. 244–245.
- ^ "Call for Environmental Study Delays Plan for a Florida Airport". The New York Times. December 25, 1997. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
- ^ "History of Homestead Air Force Base". United States Air Force. 2008. Archived from the original on February 19, 2013. Retrieved May 23, 2008..
- ^ Zaneski, Cyril (August 24, 1998). "New Environmental Study Begins on Homestead, Fla., Airport Project", The Miami Herald.
- ^ Zaneski, Cyril (January 8, 2000). "Plans for Airport at Former Homestead, Fla., Air Force Base Grounded", The Miami Herald.
- ^ Morgan, Curtis (January 6, 2001). "Miami-Area Officials' Plans for Air Force Base May Be Disrupted", The Miami Herald.
- ^ a b c "Chapter 1: Background and understanding". The Governor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida. State of Florida. October 1, 1995. Archived from the original on May 16, 2009. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
- ^ a b Kennedy, John; Deslatte, Aaron (June 29, 2008). "Big sugar took its lumps, then dealt". The Orlando Sentinel. Retrieved June 29, 2008.
- ^ Grunwald, pp. 311–313.
- ^ US Army COE and SFWMD, p. iii.
- ^ Tibbetts, John (August, 2000). "Making Amends: Ecological Restoration in the United States", Environmental Health Perspectives, 108 (8), pp. A356–A361.
- ^ US Army COE and SFWMD, pp. iv–v.
- ^ a b c US Army COE and SFWMD, p. vii.
- ^ a b c d US Army COE and SFWMD, p. viii.
- ^ a b US Army COE and SFWMD, p. ix.
- ^ US Army COE and SFWMD, p. x.
- ^ a b US Army COE and SFWMD, p. xi.
- ^ Grunwald, p. 319.
- ^ US Army COE and SFWMD, p. xii.
- ^ Kloor, Keith (May 19, 2000). "Everglades Restoration Plan Hits Rough Waters", Science, 288 (5469), pp. 1166–1167.
- ^ "Water Resources Development Act (WRDA) of 2000". The Journey to Restore America's Everglades. November 4, 2002. Archived from the original on July 20, 2008. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
- ^ "Restoring the River of Grass". Florida Department of Environmental Protection. 2006. Retrieved May 24, 2008.
- ^ (April 21, 2003). "Everglades in Peril", The New York Times, Section A, p. 22.
- ^ Grunwald, Michael (October 14, 2004). "Fla. Steps In to Speed Up State-Federal Everglades Cleanup", The Washington Post, p. A03.
- ^ Goodnough, Abby (November 2, 2007). "Vast Effort to Save Everglades Falters as U.S. Funds Dwindle", The New York Times, Section A, p. 1.
- ^ Clark, Lesley (February 13, 2008). "Crist presses lawmakers for Glades funds", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News.
- ^ June 9, 2008. "Picayune Strand a model for what Everglades restoration will mean" Archived 2008-06-21 at the Wayback Machine South Florida Sun-Sentinel|Sun-Sentinel (Ft. Lauderdale, Florida).
- ^ Hiaasen, Carl (June 15, 2008). "EPA ducks duty to keep water clean", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News.
- ^ Barnett, p. 185.
- ^ Fineout, Gary (April 4, 2008). "Deep budget cuts in store for S. Florida", The Miami Herald, State and Regional News.
- ^ Klas, Mary Ellen (June 12, 2008). "Crist OK's $66B budget with little fanfare" The Miami Herald, State and Regional News. Retrieved on June 12, 2008.
- ^ Cave, Damien and John Holusha (June 25, 2008). "Florida to Buy Sugar Maker in Bid to Restore Everglades", The New York Times, p. 1.
- ^ Welcome to the National Research Council Archived 2010-11-28 at the Wayback Machine, National Research Council website (2008). Retrieved on October 6, 2008.
- ^ a b "Progress Toward Restoring the Everglades: Second Biennial Review (Brief)", National Research Council (September 2008).
- ^ Morgan, Curtis, Clark, Lesley (April 29, 2009). "River of Cash: Stimulus Aid for Glades", The Miami Herald, p1A.
- ^ Morgan, Curtis (January 27, 2010). "Canal work begins in Everglades project", The Miami Herald, South Florida news.
- ^ Skoloff, Brian (January 22, 2010). "Gov. Crist proposes $2.1 billion for environment", The Miami Herald, Florida news.
- ^ Morgan, Curtis (April 25, 2010). "Everglades cleanup said to be mired in 'glacial delay'", The Miami Herald, South Florida news.
Bibliography
- Barnett, Cynthia (2007). Mirage: Florida and the Vanishing Water of the Eastern U.S., University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11563-4
- Douglas, Marjory; Rothchild, John (1987). Marjory Stoneman Douglas: Voice of the River. Pineapple Press. ISBN 0-910923-94-9
- Grunwald, Michael (2006). The Swamp: The Everglades, Florida, and the Politics of Paradise, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5107-5
- Lodge, Thomas E. (1994). The Everglades Handbook: Understanding the Ecosystem. CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-614-9
- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and South Florida Water Management District (April 1999). "Summary", Central and Southern Florida Project Comprehensive Review Study.
Further reading
- Alderson, Doug. 2009. New Dawn for the Kissimmee River. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-3395-2
- The Everglades in the Time of Marjory Stoneman Douglas Photo exhibit created by the State Archives of Florida
External links
- CERP: A Visual Explanation of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Project (SFWMD) Archived 2014-01-02 at the Wayback Machine
- C-44 Reservoir Storm Water Treatment Area Project (SFWMD/CERP)