Resurrection

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Resurrection (disambiguation).

The Resurrection, painting by Andrea Mantegna, 1457–1459
A depiction of a Phoenix, a figure of revival
Plaque depicting saints rising from the dead

Resurrection or anastasis is the concept of coming back to life after death. In a number of religions, a dying-and-rising god is a deity which dies and is resurrected. Reincarnation is a similar process hypothesized by other religions, which involves the same person or deity coming back to another body. Disappearance of a body is another similar, but distinct, belief in some religions.

With the advent of written records, the earliest known recurrent theme of resurrection was in Egyptian and Canaanite religions, which had cults of dying-and-rising gods such as Osiris and Baal. Ancient Greek religion generally emphasised immortality, but in the mythos a number of men and women were made physically immortal as they were resurrected from the dead.

The general resurrection of the dead is a standard eschatological belief in the Abrahamic religions. As a religious concept, it is used in two distinct respects: a belief in the resurrection of individual souls that is current and ongoing (Christian idealism, realized eschatology), or else a belief in a singular bodily resurrection of the dead at the end of the world.[1] Some believe the soul is the actual vehicle by which people are resurrected.[2] The death and resurrection of Jesus is a central focus of Christianity. While most Christians believe Jesus' resurrection from the dead and ascension to heaven was in a material body, some believe it was spiritual.[3][4][5]

Like the Abrahamic religions, the

Zen tradition. In Hinduism, the core belief in resurrection/reincarnation is known as saṃsāra.[6]

Aside from religious belief, cryonics and other speculative resurrection technologies are practiced, but the resurrection of long-dead bodies is not considered possible at the current level of scientific knowledge.

Etymology

Resurrection, from the Latin noun resurrectio -onis, from the verb rego, "to make straight, rule" + preposition sub, "under", altered to subrigo and contracted to surgo, surrexi, surrectum ("to rise", "get up", "stand up"[7]) + preposition re-, "again",[8] thus literally "a straightening from under again".

Religion

Ancient religions in the Near East

See also:
Dying-and-rising god

The concept of resurrection is found in the writings of some ancient non-Abrahamic religions in the

Dumuzi.[11]

Ancient Greek religion

In

Aristeas of Proconnesus was first found dead, after which his body disappeared from a locked room. He would reappear alive years later.[12] However, Greek attitudes towards resurrection were generally negative, and the idea of resurrection was considered neither desirable nor possible.[13] For example, Asclepius was killed by Zeus for using herbs to resurrect the dead, but by his father Apollo's request, was subsequently immortalized as a star.[14][15][16]

Many other figures, like a great part of those who fought in the

Trojan and Theban wars, Menelaus, and the historical pugilist Cleomedes of Astupalaea, were also believed to have been made physically immortal, but without having died in the first place. Indeed, in Greek religion, immortality originally always included an eternal union of body and soul.[17] Alcestis undergoes something akin to a resurrection in her escape from the underworld,[18]
but without achieving immortality.[19][full citation needed]

Writing his Lives of Illustrious Men (

Proconnesian, "for they say Aristeas died in a fuller's work-shop, and his friends coming to look for him, found his body vanished; and that some presently after, coming from abroad, said they met him traveling towards Croton". Plutarch openly scorned such beliefs held in ancient Greek religion, writing, "many such improbabilities do your fabulous writers relate, deifying creatures naturally mortal."[20] Likewise, he writes that while something within humans comes from the gods and returns to them after death, this happens "only when it is most completely separated and set free from the body, and becomes altogether pure, fleshless, and undefiled."[21]

The parallel between these traditional beliefs and the later resurrection of Jesus was not lost on the early Christians, as

Jesus Christ, our teacher, was crucified and died, and rose again, and ascended into heaven, we propose nothing different from what you believe regarding those whom you consider sons of Zeus." (1 Apol. 21
).

Buddhism

Further information: Rebirth (Buddhism)

There are stories in

Ekayana school of India that subsequently became Chan Buddhism
to China.

The other is the passing of Chinese Chan master Puhua (Japanese:Jinshu Fuke) and is recounted in the Record of Linji (Japanese: Rinzai Gigen). Puhua was known for his unusual behavior and teaching style so it is no wonder that he is associated with an event that breaks the usual prohibition on displaying such powers. Here is the account from Irmgard Schloegl's "The Zen Teaching of Rinzai".

"One day at the street market Fuke was begging all and sundry to give him a robe. Everybody offered him one, but he did not want any of them. The master [Linji] made the superior buy a coffin, and when Fuke returned, said to him: "There, I had this robe made for you." Fuke shouldered the coffin, and went back to the street market, calling loudly: "Rinzai had this robe made for me! I am off to the East Gate to enter transformation" (to die)." The people of the market crowded after him, eager to look. Fuke said: "No, not today. Tomorrow, I shall go to the South Gate to enter transformation." And so for three days. Nobody believed it any longer. On the fourth day, and now without any spectators, Fuke went alone outside the city walls, and laid himself into the coffin. He asked a traveler who chanced by to nail down the lid.

The news spread at once, and the people of the market rushed there. On opening the coffin, they found that the body had vanished, but from high up in the sky they heard the ring of his hand bell.[23]

Christianity

In

Judgment Day known as the resurrection of the dead by those Christians who subscribe to the Nicene Creed (which is the majority or mainstream Christianity), as well as the resurrection miracles done by Jesus and the prophets of the Old Testament
.

Resurrection miracles

Leon Bonnat
, France, 1857
Main article: Miracles of Jesus § Resurrection of the dead

In the

Jairus shortly after death, a young man in the midst of his own funeral procession, and Lazarus of Bethany
, who had been buried for four days.

During the

Twelve Apostles to, among other things, raise the dead.[24]

Similar resurrections are credited to the

Apostolic Age, many saints were said to resurrect the dead, as recorded in Orthodox Christian hagiographies.[citation needed] St. Columba supposedly raised a boy from the dead in the land of Picts[25] and St. Nicholas is said to have resurrected pickled children from a brine barrel during a famine by making the sign of the cross.[26][27]

Resurrection of Jesus

Main articles:
Resurrection appearances of Jesus
Resurrection of Jesus

Christians regard the resurrection of Jesus as the central doctrine in Christianity. Others take the

Apostle Paul
wrote in his first letter to the Corinthians:

If only for this life we have hope in Christ, we are to be pitied more than all men. But Christ has indeed been raised from the dead, the first fruits of those who have fallen asleep.[28]

Resurrection of the dead

Main articles: Universal resurrection § Christianity, and Christian eschatology § Resurrection of the dead

Christianity started as a religious movement within 1st-century Judaism (late

world to come
.

Belief in the resurrection of the dead, and Jesus' role as judge, is codified in the

Day of Judgment
when the dead will be raised.

Hinduism

Further information: Reincarnation

There are folklore, stories, and extractions from certain holy texts that refer to resurrections. One major folklore is that of Savitri saving her husband's life from Yamraj.[29][30][31] In the Ramayana, after Ravana was slain by Rama in a great battle between good and evil, Rama requests the king of Devas, Indra, to restore the lives of all the monkeys who died in the great battle[32][33] Mahavatar Babaji and Lahiri Mahasaya are also believed to have resurrected themselves.[34][35]

Islam

Main article: Islamic eschatology

Belief in the

bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[36]

According to

Lord of the Resurrection (Qāʾim al-Qiyāma), an individual symbolizing the purpose and pinnacle of creation from among the progeny of Muhammad and his Imams. Through this individual, the world will come out of darkness and ignorance and “into the light of her Lord” (Quran 39:69). His era, unlike that of the enunciators of the divine revelation (nāṭiqs) before him, is not one where God prescribes the people to work but instead one where God rewards them. Preceding the Lord of the Resurrection (Qāʾim) is his proof (ḥujjat). The Qur’anic verse stating that “the night of power (laylat al-qadr) is better than a thousand months” (Quran 97:3) is said to refer to this proof, whose knowledge is superior to that of a thousand Imams, though their rank, collectively, is one. Hakim Nasir also recognizes the successors of the Lord of the Resurrection to be his deputies (khulafāʾ).[37]

Judaism

Main article: Jewish eschatology

There are three explicit examples in the Hebrew Bible of people being resurrected from the dead:

According to Herbert C. Brichto, writing in Reform Judaism's

sepulture and the condition of happiness of the deceased in the afterlife".[38]

According to Brichto, the early

ancient Greeks had one known as Hades. According to Brichto, other biblical names for Sheol were Abaddon "ruin", found in Psalm 88:11, Job 28:22 and Proverbs 15:11; Bor "pit", found in Isaiah 14:15, 24:22, Ezekiel 26:20; and Shakhat "corruption", found in Isaiah 38:17, Ezekiel 28:8.[39]

During the Second Temple period, there developed a diversity of beliefs concerning the resurrection.[40] The concept of resurrection of the physical body is found in 2 Maccabees, according to which it will happen through re-creation of the flesh.[41] Resurrection of the dead also appears in detail in the extra-canonical Book of Enoch,[42] 2 Baruch,[43] and 2 Esdras. According to the British scholar in ancient Judaism Philip R. Davies, there is "little or no clear reference ... either to immortality or to resurrection from the dead" in the texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[44] C.D. Elledge, however, argues that some form of resurrection may be referred to in the Dead Sea texts 4Q521, Pseudo-Ezekiel, and 4QInstruction.[45] Too, there is the Vision of the Valley of Dry Bones in the Book of Ezekiel, and the Book of Daniel, which mentions resurrection. As Professor Devorah Dimant notes on TheTorah.com, "Originally an allegorical vision about the future return of Judeans to their land, Ezekiel's vision (ch. 37) becomes one of the cornerstones for the Jewish belief in the resurrection of the dead. ... The only biblical passage that unambiguously refers to resurrection is found in the final chapter of the book of Daniel[.]" [46]

Both Josephus and the New Testament record that the Sadducees did not believe in an afterlife,[47] but the sources vary on the beliefs of the Pharisees. The New Testament claims that the Pharisees believed in the resurrection, but does not specify whether this included the flesh or not.[48] According to Josephus, who himself was a Pharisee, the Pharisees held that only the soul was immortal and the souls of good people will "pass into other bodies," while "the souls of the wicked will suffer eternal punishment."[49] Paul the Apostle, who also was a Pharisee,[50] said that at the resurrection what is "sown as a natural body is raised a spiritual body."[51] The Book of Jubilees seems to refer to the resurrection of the soul only, or to a more general idea of an immortal soul.[52]

Philosophy

Anastasis or Ana-stasis is a concept in contemporary philosophy emerging from the works of

Jesus Christ.[54] Dwivedi and Mohan, referring to Nancy, defined Ana-stasis as coming over stasis, which is a method for philosophy to overcome its end as Martin Heidegger defined. This concept is noted to be linked in the works of Nancy, Dwivedi and Mohan to have a relation to Heidegger's "other beginning of philosophy".[55] Kohan and Dwivdei that this "overcoming" would construct a new dimension in philosophy.[56]

parallel universes, which occupy a different space to our own. He also distinguishes the theory from reincarnation, where a person lives in several successive bodies.[57]

Other scholars reivse the replica theory with the "counterpart theory", where it is believed that God creates a resurrection counterpart to one's current body, which is new and improved. Although it is defined by one's soul and history, it is not identical to the current body, which remains destroyed after death. A useful analogy is to imagine a soul as a programme, a body as a computer and the "series of states" that a soul undergoes as a person's biography. They believe the theory has precedent in scriptures like the New Testament. In addition, it incentivizes people to care about their future.[58]

Technological resurrection

Cryonics

Cryonics is the low-temperature freezing (usually at −196 °C or −320.8 °F or 77.1 K) of a human corpse or severed head, with the speculative hope that resurrection may be possible in the future.[59][60] Cryonics is regarded with skepticism within the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience,[61] and has been characterized as quackery.[62]

Digital ghosts

In his 1988 book Mind Children,

roboticist Hans Moravec proposed that a future supercomputer might be able to resurrect long-dead minds from the information that still survived. For example, such can include information in the form of memories, filmstrips, social media interactions,[63][64] modeled personality traits,[65] personal favourite things,[65] personal notes and tasks,[additional citation(s) needed] medical records, and genetic information.[66][67]

Ray Kurzweil, American inventor and futurist, believes that when his concept of singularity comes to pass, it will be possible to resurrect the dead by digital recreation.[68] Such is one approach in the concept of digital immortality, which could be described as resurrecting deceased as "digital ghosts"[69][70] or "digital avatars".[71][72] In the context of knowledge management, "virtual persona" could "aid in knowledge capture, retention, distribution, access and use" and continue to learn.[65] Issues include post-mortem privacy,[73] and potential use of personalised digital twins and associated systems by big data firms and advertisers.[74]

Related alternative approaches of digital immortality include gradually "replacing" neurons in the brain with advanced medical technology (such as nanobiotechnology) as a form of mind uploading (see also: wetware computer).[75]

De-extinction

extinct species, is also known as "resurrection biology" and often described as working on "resurrecting" dead species.[76][77][78]

Medical resuscitation

Modern medicine can, in some cases, revive patients who "died" by some definitions of death, or were declared dead. However, under most definitions of death, this would mean that the patient wasn't truly dead.

Most advanced versions of such capabilities may include a method/system under development reported in 2019, 'BrainEx', that could partially revive (pig) brains hours after death (to the degree of brain circulation and cellular functions).

donor organs but may also be developed to be useful for revival in medical emergencies by buying "more time for doctors to treat people whose bodies were starved of oxygen, such as those who died from drowning or heart attacks".[79]

There is research into what happens during[83][84] and after death as well as how and to what extent patients could be revived by the use of science and technology. For example, one study showed that in the hours after humans die, "certain cells in the human brain are still active".[85][86] However, it is thought that at least without any life-support-like systems, death is permanent and irreversible after several hours – not days – even in cases when revival was still possible shortly after death.[additional citation(s) needed]

A 2010 study notes that physicians are determining death "test only for the permanent cessation of circulation and respiration because they know that irreversible cessation follows rapidly and inevitably once circulation no longer will restore itself spontaneously and will not be restored medically".

positive pressure ventilation (PPV)" brought the interdependence of cessation of brain function and loss of respiration and circulation and "the traditional definition of death into question"[88] and further developments upend more "definitions of mortality".[89]

Hypothetical speculations without existing technologies

genetic twin of the dead person. It is necessary to give back the revived person his old mind, his personality. Fedorov speculates about the idea of "radial images" that may contain the personalities of the people and survive after death. Nevertheless, Fedorov noted that even if a soul is destroyed after death, Man will learn to restore it whole by mastering the forces of decay and fragmentation.[90]

In his 1994 book The Physics of Immortality, American

robots which will turn the entire cosmos into a supercomputer which will, shortly before the Big Crunch, perform the resurrection within its cyberspace, reconstructing formerly dead humans (from information captured by the supercomputer from the past light cone of the cosmos) as avatars within its metaverse.[91]

David Deutsch, British physicist and pioneer in the field of quantum computing, formerly agreed with Tipler's Omega Point cosmology and the idea of resurrecting deceased people with the help of quantum computers[92] but he is critical of Tipler's theological views.

Italian physicist and computer scientist Giulio Prisco presented the idea of "quantum archaeology", "reconstructing the life, thoughts, memories, and feelings of any person in the past, up to any desired level of detail, and thus resurrecting the original person via 'copying to the future'".[93]

In their

wormholes and with nanorobots, to download full snapshots of brain states and memories.[94]

In religions

Both the Church of Perpetual Life and the Terasem Movement consider themselves transreligions and advocate for the use of technology to indefinitely extend the human lifespan.[95]

Zombies

Main article: Zombie

A zombie (

magic
.

Disappearances (as distinct from resurrection)

See also: Entering heaven alive

As knowledge of different religions has grown, so have claims of bodily disappearance of some religious and mythological figures. In ancient Greek religion, this was a way the gods made some physically immortal, including such figures as Cleitus, Ganymede, Menelaus, and Tithonus.[96] After his death, Cycnus was changed into a swan and vanished. In his chapter on Romulus from Parallel Lives, Plutarch criticises the continuous belief in such disappearances, referring to the allegedly miraculous disappearance of the historical figures Romulus, Cleomedes of Astypalaea, and Croesus. In ancient times, Greek and Roman pagan similarities were explained by the early Christian writers, such as Justin Martyr, as the work of demons, with the intention of leading Christians astray.[97]

In the Buddhist

Guru Nanak Dev, is said to have disappeared and flowers left in place of his dead body.[99]

Virococha arrived at Cusco (in modern-day Peru) and the Pacific seacoast where he walked across the water and vanished.[101] It has been thought that teachings regarding the purity and incorruptibility of the hero's human body are linked to this phenomenon. Perhaps, this is also to deter the practice of disturbing and collecting the hero's remains. They are safely protected if they have disappeared.[102]

The first such case mentioned in the Bible is that of

2 Kings (2:11). In the Synoptic Gospels, after hundreds of years these two earlier Biblical heroes suddenly reappear, and are reportedly seen walking with Jesus, then again vanish.[104] In the Gospel of Luke, the last time Jesus is seen (24:51) he leaves his disciples by ascending into the sky
. This ascension of Jesus was a “disappearance” of sorts as recorded by Luke but was after the physical resurrection occurring several days before.

See also

References

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  104. ^ Mark (9:2–8), Matthew (17:1–8) and Luke (9:28–33)

Further reading

External links

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