Rhaetian people
The Raeti (
The etymology of the name Raeti is uncertain. The Roman province of Raetia was named after these people.
Ancient sources characterise the Raeti as Etruscan people who were displaced from the
The Raeti were divided into numerous tribes, but only some of these are clearly identified in the ancient sources.
The Raeti tribes, together with those of their Celtic-speaking neighbours to the north, the
Name etymology
The origin of the name Raeti is uncertain. It is not even clear if it derives from an
The Roman geographer
It has also been suggested that the name Raeti may be connected with Reitia, a major goddess who was revered in northeast Italy and is attested in a number of inscriptions on votive tablets of the Veneti people. One Raetic votive tablet, from the same region, contains the word reithus, which may refer to this deity.[3]
Origins
The earliest mention of the Raeti in surviving ancient sources is in the
But the traditional "migration theory" espoused by classical authors and, until the 1960s, by most modern scholars, is no longer considered the only possible explanation for socio-linguistic change. It is just as likely that the Raeti, if they spoke an Etruscan-like language, were Alpine indigenes who had spoken it as long as, if not longer than, the Etruscans of Etruria - especially if, as most scholars believe, Etruscan represents the pre-Indo-European base language of Italy and the Alps.[8] Alternatively, if the Alpine indigenes previously spoke a language unrelated to Etruscan, they may have adopted Etruscan through processes other than mass immigration e.g. through cultural interchange with the Etruscans of the Po valley, or as a result of "elite-transfer" by an Etruscan elite that acquired political hegemony over the Alpine tribes.
Ethno-linguistic affiliation
The Raeti are believed by many scholars to have spoken, originally at least, the so-called "
Even if "Raetian" was the ancestral language of the Raeti, there is considerable uncertainty as to how widely "Raetian" was spoken among the tribes by the time of Augustus (ruled 30 BC - AD 14). In the Alpine region as a whole, there is evidence that the non-Celtic elements had, by the time of Augustus, been assimilated by the influx of Celtic tribes and had adopted Celtic speech.[9] According to Livy, the "sound" of the Raeti's original Etruscan tongue (sonum linguae) had become corrupted as a result of inhabiting the Alps.[10] This may indicate that at least some of the tribes lost their ancestral Raetic tongue to Celtic. Celticisation also finds support in the Roman practice of twinning the Raeti with their neighbours to the North, the Vindelici, who are regarded by most historians to have been Celtic- speakers. The territories of the two peoples were combined for administrative purposes from an early stage and eventually, under the emperor Claudius (ruled 41-54), as the province of Raetia et Vindelicia. In addition, a pair of joint Raetorum et Vindelicorum auxiliary cohorts were established under Augustus.[11]
Further support for the hypothesis that the northern Raeti tribes converted to Celtic speech before the Roman imperial era is provided by the distribution of "Raetian" inscriptions. These have been found almost exclusively in northeastern Italy: South Tyrol, Trentino, and the Veneto region.[12] None have been found in Switzerland, the other core Raeti region. The Raetic inscriptions indicate that "Raetian" survived as late as the 3rd century AD, suggesting that the Raeti tribes in this region at least may not have converted to Celtic speech. In addition, the abundance of Celtic toponyms and the complete absence of Etruscan place names in the Rhaetian territory, leads to the conclusion that, by the time of Roman conquest, the Rhaetians were completely Celticized.[13]
During the centuries of Roman rule, the Raeti became predominantly
Territory
The evidence suggests that the original Roman district of Raetia et Vindelicia, as established under Augustus, had as its eastern border (with the province of
The Vindelici were, according to Ptolemy, confined to the East of the river Licca (Lech), while West of that river, upper Bavaria was inhabited by Raeti. A contrary view is that the whole region between the Danube and the Alps was occupied by Vindelici, with the Raeti confined to the Alps themselves.
The latter view accords with Strabo, who records that the territory occupied by the Raeti tribes stretched from the upper reaches of the river Rhine in northern Switzerland to as far south as the cities of Como and Verona in northern Italy. The Raeti were bounded in the East by the Celtic Taurisci of Noricum and in the West by the Helvetii.[15]
Tribes
Although the ancient sources concur in ascribing an Etruscan origin to the Raeti, they are less clear as to precisely which tribes attested in the region known as Raetia could be classified as Raeti (and whether such a classification was based on geographical location or language or cultural factors). In addition, there are considerable discrepancies in the names of tribes given by the sources. Some locations of the tribes recorded are uncertain, although most have been established securely by placename and personal-name evidence.
Strabo names the Lepontii, Camunni (who gave their name to the Val Camonica, Lombardy, Italy), Cotuantii and Rucantii as Raeti tribes.[16] Of these, the first two are listed with the same spelling in Augustus' inscription while the latter two are probably the Cosuanetes and the Rucinates respectively in Augustus.[17] However, the inscription text appears to identify the Rucinates as one of the 4 tribes of the Vindelici recorded as conquered. (But it is possible that the Strabo's Rucantii were actually another tribe, the Rugusci, in Augustus).
Against Strabo, Pliny considers the Lepontii as a Celtic tribe akin to the
In addition, it appears that "Raetia et Vindelicia" was also inhabited by a number of non-Raetic tribes. The Breuni and Genauni are classified as Illyrian by Strabo, while a number of tribes in the region have plausible Celtic etymologies: e.g. Caturiges from catu- ("fight" or "warriors") and Nantuates from nantu- ("valley") respectively.[24]
The
the following list of possible Raeti tribes results:Tribal name (as on Tropaeum Alpium) |
Name variants |
Territory (main valley/river)[27] |
Main town (Roman era) |
Modern district |
Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BREUNI
|
upper valley of fl. Aenus (r. Inn) | Tirol (Austria) | Identified as Illyrian tribe by Strabo
| ||
BRIXENETES
|
valley of fl. Atesis (r. Adige) | Brixina (Brixen) | South Tyrol (Italy) | ||
CALUCONES | Calanda (upper valley of fl. Rhenus - r. Rhine) | Curia (Chur) | Canton Grisons (Switzerland) | ||
CAMUNNI | Camuni | Val Camonica (river Oglio) | Civitas Camunnorum (Cividate Camuno) | Lombardia , It.)
|
A tribe of the Euganei, acc. to Pliny |
COSUANETES | Cotuantii? | upper valley of fl. Isaras (r. Isar) (Bavarian Alps) | Turum (Dorfen) | Oberbayern (Ger.)
|
Tribe of the Vindelici, acc. to possible interpretation of tropaeum Alpium inscription. Raeti, acc. to Strabo, if his Cotuantii are the same |
FOCUNATES | Upper valley of fl. Aenus (r. Inn) | Tirol (Austr.) | Neighbours to Genaunes and Breuni | ||
GENAUNES
|
Genauni | upper valley of fl. Aenus (r. Inn) | Tirol | Identified as Illyrian tribe by Strabo | |
ISARCI | valley of fl. Isarcus (r. Isarco )
|
South Tyrol | |||
LEPONTI | Lepontii, Lepontes | Val d'Ossola
|
Piemonte , It.)
|
Named as Raeti by Strabo. Celtic, according to Pliny | |
RUCINATES | Runicates, Rucantii? | ? between rivers Isaras (Isar) and Danuvius (Danube) | Sorviodunum (Straubing) | Niederbayern | Tribe of the Vindelici, acc. to possible interpretation of Tropaeum Alpium inscription. Named as Raeti by Strabo, if they are same as Rucantii) |
RUGUSCI | Ruigusci, Rucantii? | Alta Engadina (fl. Aenus - r. Inn) | Canton Grisons | May be Rucantii in Strabo | |
SUANETES | Sarunetes | valley of r. Albula | Lapidaria ( Zillis )
|
Canton Grisons | Identified as Raeti by Pliny |
TRUMPILINI | Trumplini | Val Trompia | Brescia province | A tribe of the Euganei, acc. to Pliny | |
VENNONETES
|
Vennones, Vennonienses | upper valley of fl. Rhenus (r. Rhine) | Canton Saint Gallen
|
Identified as Raeti by Pliny | |
VENOSTES | Val Venosta) (fl. Atesis - r. Adige )
|
South Tyrol |
Roman conquest
The Raeti, together with their probably Celtic neighbours to the North, the
Until ca. AD 100, the region was garrisoned, on its western edge (at Vindonissa from ca. AD 15), by at least one Roman legion (probably legio XIX until AD 9, when it was destroyed in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest). In addition, Roman auxiliary forces and leves armaturae ("light troops", probably a local militia) were stationed there.[29] But these forces were mainly for security against external threats, not internal unrest. Strabo wrote that the Alpine tribes as a whole adapted easily to Roman rule and had not rebelled in the 33 years that had elapsed since the initial conquest.[30]
The Raeti (and the Vindelici) were obliged to pay taxes to Rome.
According to the epigraphic record, the early
See also
- Alpine regiments of the Roman army
- Raetia
- Raetic language
Notes
- ^ Cornell (1995) 44
- ^ Pliny N.H. III.20
- ^ Zavaroni I.R. San Zeno 1
- ^ Polybius XXXIV.10.18
- ^ Pliny the Elder III.20
- ^ Livy V.33
- ^ Livy V.34
- ^ Cornell (1995) 44
- ^ Alfoldi (1974) 24-5
- ^ Livy V.33
- ^ Holder (1982)
- ^ Zavaroni 1
- ^ Cowles Prichard, James (1841). Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind: 3, Volume 1. Sherwood, Gilbert and Piper. p. 240.
- ^ Barrington Atlas maps 18, 19, 39
- ^ Strabo IV.6.8
- ^ Strabo IV.6.8
- ^ CAH X 538
- ^ Pliny the Elder III.20.134-5
- ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0
- ^ LinguistList: Lepontic
- ^ Scullard, 43.
- ^ Michel Lejeune (1974), Manuel de la langue vénète. Heidelberg: Indogermanische Bibliothek, Lehr- und Handbücher.
- ^ Julius Pokorny (1959), Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. Publisher Bern.
- ^ Faliyeyev Dictionary
- ^ O Hogain (2006) 174
- ^ Strabo IV.6.8-9; Pliny III.20.133-6; Tropaeum Alpium inscription
- ^ Barrington Atlas Maps 18,19,39
- ^ Dio LIV.22.3-4
- ^ CAH X 538-9
- ^ Strabo IV.6.9
- ^ Strabo IV.6.9
- ^ CAH X 539
- ^ CAH X 541
- ^ CAH X 369
- ^ Holder (1980) 223-4
References
Ancient
- Dio CassiusRoman History (ca. 130 AD)
- Ab urbe condita(ca. 20 AD)
- Naturalis Historia(ca. 70 AD)
- Polybius The Histories (Polybius) (ca. 160 BC)
- Strabo Geographica (ca. 20 AD)
Modern
- A. Baruffi, Spirit of Rhaetia: The Call of the Holy Mountains (LiteraryJoint, Philadelphia, PA, 2020), ISBN 978-1-716-30027-1
- Alfoldy, Geza (1974): Noricum
- Cambridge Ancient History (1996): Vol X, The Augustan Empire
- 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica(online)
- Cornell, T. J. (1995): The Beginnings of Rome
- Faliyeyev, Alexander (2007): Dictionary of Continental Celtic Placenames (online)
- Holder, Paul (1980): Studies in the Auxilia of the Roman Army
- Lejeune, M. (1988). Recueil des inscriptions gauloises: II.1 Textes gallo-étrusques. Textes gallo-latins sur pierre. Paris: CNRS.
- Ó Hógain, Dáithi (2006) The Celts
- Marchesini, Simona and Roncador, Rosa (2015): Monumanta Linguae Raeticae (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317717346_Monumenta_Linguae_Raeticae)
- Zavaroni, Adolfo (2001): Le Iscrizioni Retiche ("Raetic Inscriptions") (online)
External links
- Raetic inscriptions Adolfo Zavaroni