Rhine

Coordinates: 51°58′54″N 4°4′50″E / 51.98167°N 4.08056°E / 51.98167; 4.08056
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(Redirected from
Rhine River
)

Rhine
Graubünden, Switzerland
 • coordinates46°37′57″N 8°40′20″E / 46.63250°N 8.67222°E / 46.63250; 8.67222
 • elevation2,345 m (7,694 ft)
2nd source
Graubünden, Switzerland
Source confluence
Graubünden, Switzerland
 • coordinates46°49′24″N 9°24′27″E / 46.82333°N 9.40750°E / 46.82333; 9.40750
 • elevation585 m (1,919 ft)
MouthNorth Sea
 • location
Netherlands
 • coordinates
51°58′54″N 4°4′50″E / 51.98167°N 4.08056°E / 51.98167; 4.08056
 • elevation
0 m (0 ft)
Length1,230 km (760 mi)[note 1]
Basin size185,000 km2 (71,000 sq mi)
Discharge 
 • average2,900 m3/s (100,000 cu ft/s)
 • minimum800 m3/s (28,000 cu ft/s)
 • maximum13,000 m3/s (460,000 cu ft/s)
[2]

The Rhine

Franco-German border, after which it flows in a mostly northerly direction through the German Rhineland. Finally in Germany, the Rhine turns into a predominantly westerly direction and flows into the Netherlands where it eventually empties into the North Sea. It drains an area of 9,973 sq km and its name derives from the Celtic Rēnos. There are also two German states named after the river, North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate
.

The International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin (CHR) and EUWID contend that the river could experience a massive decrease in volume, or even dry up completely, within the next 30 to 80 years, as a result of the climate crisis.[4][5]

The Rhine is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe (after the Danube), at about 1,230 km (760 mi),[note 1] with an average discharge of about 2,900 m3/s (100,000 cu ft/s).

The Rhine and the Danube comprised much of the Roman Empire's northern inland boundary, and the Rhine has been a vital navigable waterway bringing trade and goods deep inland since those days. The various castles and defenses built along it attest to its prominence as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire. Among the largest and most important cities on the Rhine are Cologne, Rotterdam, Düsseldorf, Duisburg, Strasbourg, Arnhem, and Basel.

Name

The variants of the name of the Rhine (Latin Rhenus; French Rhin, Italian Reno, Romansh Rain or Rein? /i, Dutch Rijn, Alemannic Ry, Ripuarian Rhing)

Roman-era geography (1st century BC) as Greek Ῥῆνος (Rhēnos), Latin Rhenus.[note 3]

The spelling with Rh- in English Rhine as well as in German Rhein and French Rhin is due to the influence of Greek orthography, while the vocalization -i- is due to the

Old Frankish giving Old English Rín,[9] Old High German Rīn, early Middle Dutch (c. 1200) Rijn (then also spelled Ryn or Rin).[10]

The modern German diphthong Rhein (also used in

Palatine
. While Spanish has adopted the Germanic vocalism Rin-, Italian, Occitan, and Portuguese have retained the Latin Ren-.

The Gaulish name Rēnos (

PIE root *rei- "to move, flow, run", also found in other names such as the Reno in Italy.[note 5]

The grammatical gender of the Celtic name (as well as of its Greek and Latin adaptation) is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch, French, Spanish and Italian. The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine; and its Old Icelandic adoption was inflected as feminine.[13]

Geography

Map of the Rhine; for an interactive map, click here: Map)

The length of the Rhine is conventionally measured in "Rhine-kilometers" (Rheinkilometer), a scale introduced in 1939 which runs from the 0 km datum at

Old Rhine Bridge in the city of Konstanz, at the western end of Lake Constance, to the Hook of Holland
at 1,036.20 km.

The river is significantly shortened from its natural course due to a number of canal projects completed in the 19th and 20th century.[note 6] The "total length of the Rhine", to the inclusion of Lake Constance and the Alpine Rhine is more difficult to measure objectively; it was cited as 1,232 kilometers (766 miles) by the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat in 2010.[note 1]

Its course is conventionally divided as follows:

Length Section Avg. discharge Elevation Left tributaries [i] Right tributaries [i]
76 km [ii] The various
Posterior Rhine within Grisons
, Switzerland
116 m3/s [iii] 584 m Aua Russein, Schmuèr[15]
Ragn da Ferrera, Albula/Alvra, Gelgia, and Landwasser)[15]
c. 90 km [iv] The
Austria
)
245 m3/s [v] 400 m Tamina[17]
Ill
c. 60 km [vi] Lake Constance, including the short channel called Seerhein at Konstanz, connecting Obersee and Untersee 364 m3/s [vii] 395 m Alter Rhein (Rheintaler Binnenkanal), Goldach[19] Dornbirner Ach, Bregenzer Ach, Leiblach, Argen, Schussen, Rotach, Brunnisaach, Lipbach, Seefelder Aach, Radolfzeller Aach[19]
c. 150 km [viii] The
German-Swiss border
1,089 m3/s [ix] 246 m Wutach[24]
362 km [xi] The
Franco-German border
79 m Ill, Moder, Lauter, Nahe
159 km [xii] The Middle Rhine between Bingen and either Bonn or Cologne is entirely within Germany, passing the Rhine Gorge; 45 m
Nette, Ahr
Lahn, Wied, Sieg
177 km [xiii] The Lower Rhine downstream of Bonn, passing the Lower Rhine region of North Rhine-Westphalia 11 m Erft Wupper, Düssel, Ruhr, Emscher, Lippe
c. 50 km [xiv] The Nederrijn or "Nether Rhine" (shortened course of Oude Rijn within the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta in the Netherlands) 2,900 m3/s [xv] 0 m
Meuse
Oude IJssel, Berkel
  1. ^ a b Partial list.
  2. Anterior Rhine, including the Rein da Medel
    ; 47 mi.
  3. ^ Average runoff for the Rhine catchment for the years 1961–1990 as measured at Chur.[14]
  4. ^ 56 mi.
  5. ^ Average runoff for the Rhine catchment for the years 1961–1990 as measured at the Swiss border immediately upstream of Lake Constance.[16]
  6. ^ 37 mi.
  7. Rheinklingen.[18]
  8. ^ Konstanz to Basel, Rheinkilometer 0–167; 93 mi.
  9. ^ Average discharge for the years 1961–1990 as measured at Basel.[20] Discharges of 2,500 m3/s are regularly achieved during annual peaks, and discharges of over 4,000 m3/s have been recorded during exceptional flooding events.[21]
  10. ^ At the confluence of the Aare and the Rhine, the Aare at 564 m3/s[22] carries more water on average than the Rhine at 442 m3/s,[23] so that hydrographically speaking the Rhine is a right tributary of the Aare.
  11. ^ Basel to Bingen, Rheinkilometer 167–529; 225 mi.
  12. ^ Bingen to Cologne, Rheinkilometer 529–688; 99 mi.
  13. ^ Cologne to the Dutch-German border, Rheinkilometer 688–865.5; 110 mi.
  14. ^ 31 mi.
  15. ^ The total discharge of the Rhine is subject to significant fluctuations, and average values cited vary between sources; the total discharge given here consists of:
    Maasmond
    , 1450 m3/s; Haringvliet, 820 m3/s; Den Oever, 310 m3/s; Kornwerderzand, 220 m3/s; IJmuiden, 9 m3/s; and the Scheldt–Rhine Canal, 10 m3/s.

Headwaters and sources

Sources

Lake Toma
seen from the Rhine's upstream end

The Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from the confluence of the

canton of Graubünden, ranging from Saint-Gotthard Massif in the west via one valley lying in Ticino and Italy in the south to the Flüela Pass in the east. The Rhine is one of the four major rivers taking their source in the Gotthard region, along with the Ticino, Rhône and Reuss
.

Traditionally, Lake Toma near the Oberalp Pass in the Gotthard region is seen as the source of the Anterior Rhine and the Rhine as a whole. The Posterior Rhine rises in the Rheinwald below the Rheinwaldhorn.

Anterior Rhine and Posterior Rhine

The confluence of the Anterior Rhine to the lower left and the Posterior Rhine in the background forms the Alpine Rhine (to the left) next to Reichenau.

The source of the river is generally considered north of Lai da Tuma/Tomasee on Rein Anteriur/Vorderrhein,[25] although its southern tributary Rein da Medel is actually longer before its confluence with the Anterior Rhine near Disentis.

The Anterior Rhine (
Flims Rockslide
.
The Posterior Rhine (
Roflaschlucht and Viamala, it reaches Reichenau in Tamins
.
Map of the Alpine Rhine

The Anterior Rhine arises from numerous source streams in the upper

Lai da Tuma (2,345 m (7,694 ft))[26] with the Rein da Tuma
, which is usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it.

Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the Rein da Medel, the

canton of Ticino is drained by the Reno di Medel, which crosses the geomorphologic Alpine main ridge from the south.[note 7]
All streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro-electric power plants.

The culminating point of the Anterior Rhine's drainage basin is the

Piz Russein of the Tödi massif of the Glarus Alps at 3,613 meters (11,854 ft) above sea level. It starts with the creek Aua da Russein (lit.: "Water of the Russein").[27]

In its lower course, the Anterior Rhine flows through a gorge named Ruinaulta (Flims Rockslide). The whole stretch of the Anterior Rhine to the Alpine Rhine confluence next to Reichenau in Tamins is accompanied by a long-distance hiking trail called Senda Sursilvana.[28]

The Posterior Rhine flows first east-northeast, then north. It flows through the three valleys named

Rheinquellhorn, and Güferhorn
).

The Avers Rhine joins from the south. One of its headwaters, the Reno di Lei (stowed in the Lago di Lei), is partially located in Italy.

Near Sils the Posterior Rhine is joined by the Albula, from the east, from the Albula Pass region. The Albula draws its water mainly from the Landwasser with the Dischmabach as the largest source stream, but almost as much from the Gelgia, which comes down from the Julier Pass.

Numerous larger and smaller tributary rivers bear the name of the Rhine or equivalent in various

Romansh
idioms, including Rein or Ragn, including:

  • Anterior Rhine area: Rein Anteriur/Vorderrhein, Rein da Medel, Rein da Tuma, Rein da Curnera, Rein da Maighels, Rein da Cristallina, Rein da Nalps, Rein da Plattas, Rein da Sumvitg, Rein da Vigliuts, Valser Rhine
  • Posterior Rhine basin: Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein, Reno di Lei, Madrischer Rhein, Avers Rhine, Jufer Rhein
  • Albula-Landwasser area: In the Dischma valley, near Davos, far east of the Rhine, there's a place called Am Rin ("Upon Rhine"). A tributary of the Dischma is called Riner Tälli. Nearby, on the other side of the Sertig, is the Rinerhorn.

Alpine Rhine

Girrenspitz
(2,099 m (6,886 ft)) in the back, and the Maziferchopf (855 m (2,805 ft)) to the right

Next to

Graubünden
, and later forms the border between Switzerland to the west and Liechtenstein and later Austria to the east.

As an effect of human work, it empties into Lake Constance on Austrian territory and not on the border that follows its old natural river bed.

The mouth of the Rhine into Lake Constance forms an

bird sanctuary. It includes the Austrian towns of Gaißau, Höchst and Fußach. The natural Rhine originally branched into at least two arms and formed small islands by precipitating sediments. In the local Alemannic dialect, the singular is pronounced "Isel" and this is also the local pronunciation of Esel ("Donkey
"). Many local fields have an official name containing this element.

Aerial image of the mouth of the Rhine into Lake Constance

A regulation of the Rhine was called for, with an upper canal near

Tuggenersee
.

The cut-off Old Rhine at first formed a

Rheineck
.

Lake Constance

Delta of the Alpine Rhine. The northwesterly "finger" (on the top left) is Lake Überlingen, containing the island of Mainau. Below Lake Überlingen (also in the west) is the smaller Untersee, containing Reichenau Island. The Obersee and Untersee are connected by the four kilometers long Seerhein. On the left the High Rhine
can be seen.

Lake Constance consists of three bodies of water: the Obersee ("upper lake"), the Untersee ("lower lake"), and a connecting stretch of the Rhine, called the Seerhein ("Lake Rhine"). The lake is situated in Germany, Switzerland and Austria near the Alps. Specifically, its shorelines lie in the German states of Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg, the Austrian state of Vorarlberg, and the Swiss cantons of Thurgau and St. Gallen. The Rhine flows into it from the south following the Swiss-Austrian border. It is located at approximately 47°39′N 9°19′E / 47.650°N 9.317°E / 47.650; 9.317.

Obersee

The flow of cold, grey mountain water continues for some distance into the lake. The cold water flows near the surface and at first does not mix with the warmer, green waters of Upper Lake. But then, at the so-called Rheinbrech, the Rhine water abruptly falls into the depths because of the greater density of cold water. The flow reappears on the surface at the northern (German) shore of the lake, off the island of

Lindau. The water then follows the northern shore until Hagnau am Bodensee. A small fraction of the flow is diverted off the island of Mainau
into Lake Überlingen. Most of the water flows via the Constance hopper into the Rheinrinne ("Rhine Gutter") and Seerhein. Depending on the water level, this flow of the Rhine water is clearly visible along the entire length of the lake.

The Rhine carries very large amounts of debris into the lake – over three million cubic meters (110,000,000 cu ft) annually.

land improvements
upstream.

Three countries border the Obersee, namely Switzerland in the south, Austria in the southeast and the German states of Bavaria in the northeast and Baden-Württemberg in the north and northwest.

Seerhein

Distance markers along the Rhine indicate distances from this bridge in Konstanz
The 555 km marker downstream from the Lorelei

The Seerhein is only 4 kilometers (2.5 mi) long. It connects the Obersee with the 30 cm lower Untersee. Distance markers along the Rhine measure the distance from the bridge in the old city center of Konstanz.

For most of its length, the Seerhein forms the border between Germany and Switzerland. The exception is the old city center of Konstanz, on the Swiss side of the river.

The Seerhein emerged in the last thousands of years, when erosion caused the lake level to be lowered by about 10 meters. Previously, the two lakes formed a single lake, as the name still suggests.

Untersee

Like in the Obersee, the flow the Rhine can be traced in the Untersee. Here, too, the river water is hardly mixed with the lake water. The northern parts of the Untersee (Lake Zell and Gnadensee) remain virtually unaffected by the flow. The river traverses the southern, which, in isolation, is sometimes called Rhinesee ("Lake Rhine").

The Radolfzeller Aach adds large amounts of water from the Danube system to the Untersee.

Reichenau Island was formed at the same time as the Seerhein, when the water level fell to its current level.

Lake Untersee is part of the border between Switzerland and Germany, with Germany on the north bank and Switzerland on the south, except both sides are Swiss in Stein am Rhein, where the High Rhine flows out of the lake.

High Rhine

The High Rhine
The Rhine Fall at Schaffhausen (Switzerland)

The High Rhine (Hochrhein) begins in

canton of Aargau – by its major tributary, the Aare. The Aare more than doubles the Rhine's water discharge, to an average of slightly more than 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s),[note 8] and provides more than a fifth of the discharge at the Dutch border. The Aare also contains the waters from the 4,274 m (14,022 ft) summit of Finsteraarhorn, the highest point of the Rhine basin
.

Between

border between Germany and Switzerland. Only for brief distances at its extremities does the river run entirely within Switzerland; at the eastern end it separates the bulk of the canton of Schaffhausen on the northern bank from cantons Zürich and Thurgau, while at the western end it bisects Basel-Stadt. Here, at the Rhine knee
, the river turns north and leaves Switzerland altogether.

The High Rhine is characterized by numerous dams. On the few remaining natural sections, there are still several rapids. Over its entire course from Lake Constance to the Swiss border at Basel the river descends from 395 m to 252 m.

Upper Rhine

The Rhine in Basel is Switzerland's gateway to the sea.
View of the Mainz Basin downstreams of Mainz, from Eltville and Erbach to Bingen

In the center of Basel, the first major city in the course of the stream, is the Rhine knee, a major bend, where the overall direction of the Rhine changes from west to north. Here the High Rhine ends. Legally, the Central Bridge is the boundary between High and Upper Rhine. The river now flows north as Upper Rhine through the Upper Rhine Plain, which is about 300 km long and up to 40 km wide. The most important tributaries in this area are the Ill below of Strasbourg, the Neckar in Mannheim and the Main across from Mainz. In Mainz, the Rhine leaves the Upper Rhine Valley and flows through the Mainz Basin.

The Rhine at Mannheim, in the Rhine-Neckar industrial area

The southern half of the Upper Rhine forms the border between France (Alsace) and Germany (Baden-Württemberg). The northern part forms the border between the German states of Rhineland-Palatinate in the west on the one hand, and Baden-Württemberg and Hesse on the other hand, in the east and north. A curiosity of this border line is that the parts of the city of Mainz on the right bank of the Rhine were given to Hesse by the occupying forces in 1945.

The Upper Rhine was a significant cultural landscape in Central Europe already in

antiquity and during the Middle Ages. Today, the Upper Rhine area hosts many important manufacturing and service industries, particularly in the centers Basel, Strasbourg and Mannheim-Ludwigshafen. Strasbourg is the seat of the European Parliament
, and so one of the three European capitals is located on the Upper Rhine.

The Upper Rhine region was changed significantly by a Rhine straightening program in the 19th century. The rate of flow was increased and the ground water level fell significantly. Dead branches were removed by construction workers and the area around the river was made more habitable for humans on

flood plains as the rate of flooding decreased sharply. On the French side, the Grand Canal d'Alsace was dug, which carries a significant part of the river water, and all of the traffic. In some places, there are large compensation pools, for example, the huge Bassin de compensation de Plobsheim
in Alsace.

The Upper Rhine has undergone significant human change since the 19th century. While it was slightly modified during the Roman occupation, it was not until the emergence of engineers such as

Bavarian Palatinate. Loops, oxbows, branches and islands were removed along the Upper Rhine so that there would be uniformity to the river.[33] The engineering of the Rhine was not without protest, farmers and fishermen had grave concerns about valuable fishing areas and farmland being lost. While some areas lost ground, other areas saw swamps and bogs be drained and turned into arable land.[34] Johann Tulla had the goal of shortening and straightening the Upper Rhine. Early engineering projects the Upper Rhine also had issues, with Tulla's project at one part of the river creating rapids, after the Rhine cut down from erosion to sheer rock.[34] Engineering along the Rhine eased flooding and made transportation along the river less cumbersome. These state projects were part of the advanced and technical progress going on in the country alongside the industrial revolution. For the German state, making the river more predictable was to ensure development projects could easily commence.[35]

The section of the Upper Rhine downstream from Mainz is also known as the "Island Rhine". Here a number of river islands occur, locally known as "Rheinauen".

Middle Rhine

Rhine by ship from Assmannshausen to Rüdesheim, a 2008 video
Burg Katz with Lorelei
in the background

The Rhine is the longest river in Germany. It is here that the Rhine encounters some more of its main tributaries, such as the

Vosges and Jura Mountains uplands. Most of Luxembourg and a very small part of Belgium
also drain to the Rhine via the Moselle. As it approaches the Dutch border, the Rhine has an annual mean discharge of 2,290 m3/s (81,000 cu ft/s) and an average width of 400 m (1,300 ft).

Between

UNESCO World Heritage Site (2002) and known as "the Romantic Rhine", with more than 40 castles and fortresses from the Middle Ages
and many quaint and lovely country villages.

The Mainz Basin ends in

Rhenish Slate Mountains. In this sections the river falls from 77.4 m above sea level to 50.4 m. On the left, is located the mountain ranges of Hunsrück and Eifel, on the right Taunus and Westerwald. According to geologists, the characteristic narrow valley form was created by erosion by the river while the surrounding landscape was lifted (see water gap
).

Major tributaries in this section are the Lahn and the Moselle. They join the Rhine near Koblenz, for the right and left respectively. Almost the entire length of the Middle Rhine runs in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate.

The dominant economic sectors in the Middle Rhine area are

viniculture and tourism. The Rhine Gorge between Rüdesheim am Rhein and Koblenz is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Near Sankt Goarshausen, the Rhine flows around the famous rock Lorelei
. With its outstanding architectural monuments, the slopes full of vines, settlements crowded on the narrow river banks and scores of castles lined up along the top of the steep slopes, the Middle Rhine Valley can be considered the epitome of the Rhine romanticism.

Lower Rhine

Low water in Düsseldorf
The Lower Rhine at Emmerich

In

Lippe. Like the Upper Rhine, the Lower Rhine used to meander
until engineering created a solid river bed. Because the levees are some distance from the river, at high tide the Lower Rhine has more room for widening than the Upper Rhine.

The Lower Rhine flows through

High German
are spoken.

Until the early 1980s, industry was a major source of water pollution. Although many plants and factories can be found along the Rhine up into

Ruhr Area include the Emscher
.

Delta

The central and northern parts of the Rhine-Meuse delta
Meuse
estuary in 1904: light blue old course, dark blue today's course
Map showing how the waters of the Rhine and Meuse rivers split into various branches of their combined delta
The Nederrijn at Arnhem

The Dutch name for Rhine is "Rijn". The Rhine turns west and enters the

Spijk, close to Nijmegen and Arnhem, the Rhine is at its widest, although the river then splits into three main distributaries: the Waal, Nederrijn ("Nether Rhine") and IJssel
.

From here, the situation becomes more complicated, as the Dutch name Rijn no longer coincides with the main flow of water. Two-thirds of the water flow volume of the Rhine flows farther west, through the Waal and then, via the

Het Scheur
.

The other third of the water flows through the Pannerdens Kanaal and redistributes in the IJssel and Nederrijn. The IJssel branch carries one ninth of the water flow of the Rhine north into the IJsselmeer (a former bay), while the Nederrijn carries approximately two-ninths of the flow west along a route parallel to the Waal. However, at Wijk bij Duurstede, the Nederrijn changes its name and becomes the Lek. It flows farther west, to rejoin the Noord into the Nieuwe Maas and to the North Sea.

The name Rijn, from here on, is used only for smaller streams farther to the north, which together formed the main river Rhine in

Utrecht, first Leidse Rijn ("Rhine of Leiden") and then, Oude Rijn ("Old Rhine"). The latter flows west into a sluice at Katwijk, where its waters can be discharged into the North Sea. This branch once formed the line along which the Limes Germanicus were built. During periods of lower sea levels within the various ice ages, the Rhine took a left turn, creating the Channel River
, the course of which now lies below the English Channel.

The Rhine-Meuse Delta, the most important natural region of the Netherlands begins near Millingen aan de Rijn, close to the Dutch-German border with the division of the Rhine into Waal and Nederrijn. The region between the Dutch-German border and Rotterdam, where the Waal, Lek, and Meuse run more or less parallel, is colloquially known as the "Great Rivers". Since the Rhine contributes most of the water, the shorter term Rhine Delta is commonly used. However, this name is also used for the river delta where the Rhine flows into Lake Constance, so it is clearer to call the larger one Rhine-Meuse delta, or even Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta, as the Scheldt ends in the same delta.

The shape of the Rhine delta is determined by two

Dordtse Kil
, which branches off from Oude Maas.

Before the

Meuse flowed just south of today's line Merwede-Oude Maas to the North Sea and formed an archipelago-like estuary with Waal and Lek. This system of numerous bays, estuary-like extended rivers, many islands and constant changes of the coastline, is hard to imagine today. From 1421 to 1904, the Meuse and Waal merged further upstream at Gorinchem to form Merwede. For flood protection reasons, the Meuse was separated from the Waal through a lock and diverted into a new outlet called "Bergse Maas", then Amer
and then flows into the former bay Hollands Diep.

The northwestern part of the estuary (around Hook of Holland), is still called Maasmond ("Meuse Mouth"), ignoring the fact that it now carries only water from the Rhine. This might explain the confusing naming of the various branches.

The hydrography of the current delta is characterized by the delta's main arms, disconnected arms (

polders. The construction of Delta Works changed the Delta in the second half of the 20th century fundamentally. Currently Rhine water runs into the sea, or into former marine bays now separated from the sea, in five places, namely at the mouths of the Nieuwe Merwede, Nieuwe Waterway (Nieuwe Maas), Dordtse Kil, Spui
and IJssel.

The Rhine-Meuse Delta is a tidal delta, shaped not only by the sedimentation of the rivers, but also by tidal currents. This meant that high tide formed a serious risk because strong tidal currents could tear huge areas of land into the sea. Before the construction of the Delta Works, tidal influence was palpable up to Nijmegen, and even today, after the regulatory action of the Delta Works, the tide acts far inland. At the Waal, the most landward tidal influence can be detected between Brakel and Zaltbommel.

Geologic history

Alpine orogeny

Upper Rhine Graben

The Rhine flows from the Alps to the North Sea Basin. The geography and geology of its present-day watershed has been developing since the Alpine orogeny began.

In southern Europe, the stage was set in the Triassic Period of the Mesozoic Era, with the opening of the Tethys Ocean, between the Eurasian and African tectonic plates, between about 240 MBP and 220 MBP (million years before present). The present Mediterranean Sea descends from this somewhat larger Tethys sea. At about 180 MBP, in the Jurassic Period, the two plates reversed direction and began to compress the Tethys floor, causing it to be subducted under Eurasia and pushing up the edge of the latter plate in the Alpine Orogeny of the Oligocene and Miocene Periods. Several microplates were caught in the squeeze and rotated or were pushed laterally, generating the individual features of Mediterranean geography: Iberia pushed up the Pyrenees; Italy, the Alps, and Anatolia, moving west, the mountains of Greece and the islands. The compression and orogeny continue today, as shown by the ongoing raising of the mountains a small amount each year and the active volcanoes.

In northern Europe, the North Sea Basin had formed during the Triassic and Jurassic periods and continued to be a sediment receiving basin since. In between the zone of Alpine orogeny and North Sea Basin subsidence, highlands resulting from an earlier orogeny (Variscan) remained, such as the Ardennes, Eifel and Vosges.

From the

Rhone and Danube
drained the northern flanks of the Alps.

Stream capture

The watershed of the Rhine reaches into the Alps today, but it did not start out that way.[37] In the Miocene period, the watershed of the Rhine reached south, only to the Eifel and Westerwald hills, about 450 km (280 mi) north of the Alps. The Rhine then had the Sieg as a tributary, but not yet the Moselle. The northern Alps were then drained by the Danube.

Through

Meuse
, to its watershed.

Around 2.5 million years ago (ending 11,600 years ago) the Ice Ages began. Since approximately 600,000 years ago, six major glacial periods have occurred, in which sea level dropped as much as 120 m (390 ft) and much of the continental margins were exposed. In the

Anglian glaciation (~450,000 yr BP, marine oxygen isotope stage 12), the northern part of the present North Sea was blocked by the ice and a large lake developed, that overflowed through the English Channel. This caused the Rhine's course to be diverted through the English Channel. Since then, during glacial times, the river mouth was located offshore of Brest, France and rivers, like the River Thames and the Seine
, became tributaries to the Rhine. During interglacials, when sea level rose to approximately the present level, the Rhine built deltas in what is now the Netherlands.

The most recent glacial period ran from ~74,000 (BP = Before Present), until the end of the Pleistocene (~11,600 BP). In northwest Europe, it saw two very cold phases, peaking around 70,000 BP and around 29,000–24,000 BP. The last phase slightly predates the global last ice age maximum (Last Glacial Maximum). During this time, the lower Rhine flowed roughly west through the Netherlands and extended to the southwest, through the English Channel and finally, to the Atlantic Ocean. The English Channel, the Irish Channel and most of the North Sea were dry land, mainly because sea level was approximately 120 m (390 ft) lower than today.

Most of the Rhine's current course was not under the ice during the last Ice Age; although, its source must still have been a glacier. A tundra, with Ice Age flora and fauna, stretched across middle Europe, from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. Such was the case during the Last Glacial Maximum, ca. 22,000–14,000 yr BP, when ice-sheets covered Scandinavia, the Baltics, Scotland and the Alps, but left the space between as open tundra. Loess (wind-blown topsoil dust) arose from the south and North Sea plain settling on the slopes of the Alps, Urals and the Rhine Valley, rendering the valleys facing the prevailing winds especially fertile.

End of the last glacial period

As northwest Europe slowly began to warm from 22,000 years ago onward, frozen

transgressionally
.

About 11000 years ago, the Rhine estuary was in the Strait of Dover. There remained some dry land in the southern North Sea, known as Doggerland, connecting mainland Europe to Britain. About 9000 years ago, that last divide was overtopped / dissected. Humans were already resident in the area when these events happened.

Since 7500 years ago the situation of tides, currents and land-forms has resembled the present. Rates of sea level rise dropped such that natural sedimentation by the Rhine and coastal processes widely compensate for transgression by the sea. In the southern North Sea, due to ongoing tectonic subsidence, the coastline and sea bed are sinking at the rate of about 1–3 cm (0.39–1.18 in) per century (1 meter or 39 inches in last 3000 years).

About 7000–5000 BP, a general warming encouraged migration of all former ice-locked areas, including up the Danube and down the Rhine by peoples to the east. A sudden massive expansion of the Black Sea as the Mediterranean Sea burst into it through the Bosporus may have occurred about 7500 BP.

Holocene delta

At the beginning of the

tectonic subsidence have strongly influenced delta evolution. Other factors of importance to the shape of the delta are the local tectonic activities of the Peel Boundary Fault, the substrate and geomorphology, as inherited from the Last Glacial period and the coastal-marine dynamics, such as barrier and tidal inlet formations.[39]

Since ~3000 yr BP (= years Before Present), human impact is seen in the delta. As a result of increasing land clearance (

groynes
were built to prevent the river's channels from migrating or silting up.

At present, the branches Waal and Nederrijn-Lek discharge to the North Sea through the former Meuse

Zuider Zee), initially a brackish lagoon but a freshwater lake since 1932. The discharge of the Rhine is divided into three branches: the Waal (6/9 of total discharge), the Nederrijn – Lek (2/9 of total discharge) and the IJssel (1/9 of total discharge). This discharge distribution has been maintained since 1709 by river engineering works including the digging of the Pannerdens Kanaal and the installation, in the 20th century, of a series of weirs on the Nederrijn
.

Military and cultural history

Loreley

Antiquity

The Rhine was not known to

Roman-era geography. At that time, it formed the boundary between Gaul and Germania
. Although it is estimated that germanic tribes have been inhabiting the area since 2000 BCE.

The Upper Rhine had been part of the areal of the late Hallstatt culture since the 6th century BC, and by the 1st century BC, the areal of the La Tène culture covered almost its entire length, forming a contact zone with the Jastorf culture, i.e. the locus of early Celtic-Germanic cultural contact.

In Roman geography, the Rhine formed the boundary between Gallia and Germania by definition; e.g.

Maurus Servius Honoratus
, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil (8.727) (Rhenus) fluvius Galliae, qui Germanos a Gallia dividit "(The Rhine is a) river of Gaul, which divides the Germanic people from Gaul."

In Roman geography, the Rhine and

Hercynia Silva were considered the boundary of the civilized world; as it was a wilderness, the Romans were eager to explore it. This view is typified by Res Gestae Divi Augusti, a long public inscription of Augustus, in which he boasts of his exploits; including, sending an expeditionary fleet north of the Rheinmouth, to Old Saxony and Jutland
, which he claimed no Roman had ever done before.

Augustus ordered his stepson Roman general

Germanic Wars in 12 BC. At this time, the plain of the Lower Rhine was the territory of the Ubii
. The first urban settlement, on the grounds of what is today Downtown Cologne, along the Rhine, was Oppidum Ubiorum, which was founded in 38 BC by the Ubii. Cologne became acknowledged, as a city by the Romans in AD 50, by the name of Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium.

Castellum Nigrum Pullum, Zwammerdam, Netherlands, artist impression Stevie Xinas

From the death of Augustus in AD 14 until after AD 70, Rome accepted as her

Alsace-Lorraine
had drifted across the river eastwards.

The Romans kept eight legions in five bases along the Rhine. The number was reduced to four as more units were moved to the Danube. The actual number of legions present at any base or in all, depended on whether a state or threat of war existed. Between about AD 14 and 180, the assignment of legions was as follows:

For the army of Germania Inferior, two legions at Vetera (Xanten), I Germanica and XX Valeria (Pannonian troops); two legions at oppidum Ubiorum ("town of the Ubii"), which was renamed to Colonia Agrippina, descending to Cologne, V Alaudae, a Celtic legion recruited from Gallia Narbonensis and XXI, possibly a Galatian legion from the other side of the empire.

For the army of Germania Superior: one legion, II Augusta, at Argentoratum (Strasbourg); and one, XIII Gemina, at Vindonissa (Windisch). Vespasian had commanded II Augusta, before he became emperor. In addition, were a double legion, XIV and XVI, at Moguntiacum (Mainz).

The two original military districts of

Alemanni. For a time, the Rhine ceased to be a border, when the Franks crossed the river and occupied Roman-dominated Celtic Gaul
, as far as Paris.

Alemannia on the High Rhine. This "Germanic Heroic Age" is reflected in medieval legend, such as the Nibelungenlied which tells of the hero Siegfried killing a dragon on the Drachenfels (Siebengebirge) ("dragons rock"), near Bonn
at the Rhine and of the Burgundians and their court at Worms, at the Rhine and Kriemhild's golden treasure, which was thrown into the Rhine by Hagen.

Medieval and modern history

Louis XIV cross the Rhine
into the Netherlands in 1672.

By the 6th century, the Rhine was within the borders of

Sigismund of Austria in 1469 and eventually fell to France in the Thirty Years' War. The numerous historic castles in Rhineland-Palatinate
attest to the importance of the river as a commercial route.

Since the

Napoleon Bonaparte, tried with varying degrees of success to annex lands west of the Rhine. The Confederation of the Rhine was established by Napoleon, as a French client state, in 1806 and lasted until 1814, during which time it served as a significant source of resources and military manpower for the First French Empire. In 1840, the Rhine crisis, prompted by French prime minister Adolphe Thiers
's desire to reinstate the Rhine as a natural border, led to a diplomatic crisis and a wave of nationalism in Germany.

Allied soldiers of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment crossing the Rhine into Germany after the end of WWI, December 1918

The Rhine became an important symbol in German nationalism during the formation of the German state in the 19th century (see Rhine romanticism).

  • The song Die Wacht am Rhein, which almost became a national anthem.
  • Das Rheingold – inspired by the Nibelungenlied, the Rhine is one of the settings for the first opera of Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen. The action of the epic opens and ends underneath the Rhine, where three Rheinmaidens swim and protect a hoard of gold.
  • The
    Loreley
    /Lorelei is a rock on the eastern bank of the Rhine, that is associated with several legendary tales, poems and songs. The river spot has a reputation for being a challenge for inexperienced navigators.

At the end of World War I, the Rhineland was subject to the Treaty of Versailles. This decreed that it would be occupied by the allies, until 1935 and after that, it would be a demilitarized zone, with the German army forbidden to enter. The Treaty of Versailles and this particular provision, in general, caused much resentment in Germany. The Allies' troops left the Rhineland in 1930 and, following the rise to power of Adolf Hitler, the German army re-occupied it in 1936, which proved an enormously popular action in Germany. Although the Allies could probably have prevented the reoccupation, Britain and France were not inclined to do so, a feature of their policy of appeasement to Hitler.

US 89th Infantry Division cross the Rhine in assault boats under German fire as part of Operation Plunder
on 24 March 1945.

In World War II, it was recognized that the Rhine would present a formidable natural obstacle to the invasion of Germany, by the Western Allies. The Rhine bridge at Arnhem, immortalized in the book, A Bridge Too Far and the film, was a central focus of the battle for Arnhem, during the failed Operation Market Garden of September 1944. The bridges at Nijmegen, over the Waal distributary of the Rhine, were also an objective of Operation Market Garden. In a separate operation, the Ludendorff Bridge, crossing the Rhine at Remagen, became famous, when U.S. forces were able to capture it intact – much to their own surprise – after the Germans failed to demolish it. This also became the subject of a film, The Bridge at Remagen. Seven Days to the River Rhine was a Warsaw Pact war plan for an invasion of Western Europe during the Cold War.

Until 1932, the generally accepted length of the Rhine was 1,230 kilometers (760 mi). In 1932 the German encyclopedia Knaurs Lexikon stated the length as 1,320 kilometers (820 mi), presumably a typographical error. After this number was placed into the authoritative Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, it became generally accepted and found its way into numerous textbooks and official publications. The error was discovered in 2010, and the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat confirms the length at 1,232 kilometers (766 miles).[note 1]

Lists of features

Cities on the Rhine

Countries and borders

During its course from the Alps to the North Sea, the Rhine passes through four countries and constitutes six different country borders. On the various parts:

  • the Anterior Rhine lies entirely within Switzerland, while at least one tributary to Posterior Rhine, Reno di Lei originates in Italy, but is not considered a part of the Rhine proper.
  • the Alpine Rhine flows within Switzerland till Sargans, from which it becomes the border between Switzerland (to the west) and Liechtenstein (to the east) until Oberriet, and the river never flows within Liechtenstein. It then becomes the border between Switzerland (to the west) and Austria (to the east) until Diepoldsau where the modern and straight course enters Switzerland, while the original course Alter Rhein makes a bend to the east and continues as the Swiss-Austrian border until the confluence at Widnau. From here the river continues as the border until Lustenau, where the modern and straight course enters Austria (the only part of the river that flows within Austria), while the original course makes a bend to the west and continues as the border, until both courses enter Lake Constance.
  • the first half of Seerhein, between the upper and lower body of Lake Constance, flows within Germany (and the city of Konstanz), while the second is the German (to the north) – Swiss (to the south) frontier.
  • the first parts of the High Rhine, from Lake Constance to Altholz, the river alternates flowing within Switzerland and being the German-Swiss frontier (three times each). From Altholz the river is the German-Swiss border until Basel, where it enters Switzerland for the last time.
  • the Upper Rhine is the border between France (to the west) and Switzerland (to the east) for a short distance, from Basel to Hunningue. Here it becomes the Franco (to the west) – German (to the east) frontier until Au am Rhein. Hence, the main course of the Rhine never flows within France, although some river canals do. From Au am Rhein the river flows within Germany.
  • the Middle Rhine flows entirely within Germany.
  • the Lower Rhine flows within Germany until Emmerich am Rhein, where it becomes the border between The Netherlands (to the north) and Germany (to the south). At Millingen aan de Rijn the river enters the Netherlands.
  • all parts of the Delta Rhein flows within the Netherlands until they enter the North Sea, IJsselmeer (IJssel) or Haringvliet (Waal) at the Dutch coast.

Bridges

Former distributaries

Order: panning north to south through the Western Netherlands:

Canals

Order: upstream to downstream:

See also

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d The Rhine only has an official length scale (Rheinkilometer) downstream of Konstanz. Its full length is subject to the definition of the Alpine Rhine. In 2010, there were media reports to the effect that the length of the Rhine had been consistently over-stated in 20th-century encyclopedias, and upon request by journalists, the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat gave a length of 1,232 kilometers (766 mi).[6][7]
  2. Latin: Rhenus [ˈr̥eːnʊs]; Hungarian: Rajna [ˈrɒjnɒ]
    .
  3. ^ The Rhine was not known in the Hellenistic period. It is mentioned by Cicero, In Pisonem 33.81. Strabo (1.4.3) mentions the countries "at the mouth of the Rhine" αἱ τοῦ Ῥήνου ἐκβολαί; "states that the countries "beyond the Rhine and as far as Scythia" καὶ τὰ πέραν τοῦ Ῥήνου τὰ μέχρι Σκυθῶ should be considered unknown, as Pytheas' account of remote nations cannot be trusted.
  4. ^ Krahe (1964) claims the hydronym as "Old European", i.e. belonging to the oldest Indo-European layer of names predating the 6th century BC (Hallstatt D) Celtic expansion.[12][page needed]
  5. ^ In Albanian/Illyrian rrhedh also means to "move, flow, run". Pokorny's (1959) "3. er- : or- : r- 'to move, set in motion'" (pp. 326–32), laryngealist *h1reiH-, with an -n- suffix; Celtic reflexes: Old Irish renn "rapid", rīan "sea", Middle Irish rian "river, way". The root gives the Germanic verb rinnan (' < *ri-nw-an) whence English run (from a causative *rannjanan, Old English eornan); Gothic rinnan "run, flow," Old English rinnan, Old Norse rinna "to run,", rinno "brook"; c.f. Sanskrit rinati "causes to flow"; Root cognates without the -n- suffix include Middle Low German ride "brook", Old English riþ "stream", Dutch ril "running stream", Latin rivus "stream", Old Church Slavonic reka "river".; see also "Rhine". Online Etymology Dictionary. Douglas Harper. November 2001. Retrieved 10 February 2009.
  6. ^ most notably the straightening of the Upper Rhine planned by Johann Gottfried Tulla, completed during 1817–1876.
  7. ^ The geomorphological ridge line does not necessarily coincide with the watershed, since it refers to the average altitude in a surrounding circle
  8. ^ The fact that the Aare contributes the larger portion of the combined volume – 51.8%, based on 1961–1990 averages[30] – means that in hydrographical terms the Rhine could be considered a tributary of the Aare, but the greater length of the Alpine Rhine means that it retains the designation as main branch.

References

  1. ^ a b "Le Rhin" (official site) (in French). Paris, France: L'Institut National de l'Information Geographique et Forestrière IGN. Retrieved 6 March 2016.
  2. ^ Frijters & Leentvaar 2003.
  3. ^ "Rhine". Collins Dictionary (Online ed.). Retrieved 1 June 2023.
  4. .
  5. ^ Gerber, A. (6 July 2022). "Klimaforscher Latif: Rhein könnte bei Dürre austrocknen" [Climate researcher Latif: The Rhine could dry out in the event of a drought]. EUWID Wasser und Abwasser (in German). Gernsbach: EUWID Europäischer Wirtschaftsdienst. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  6. ^ Schrader, C.; Uhlmann, B. (28 March 2010). "Der Rhein ist kürzer als gedacht – Jahrhundert-Irrtum" [The Rhine is Shorter Than Expected – The Mistake of the Century]. Süddeutsche Zeitung (in German). München.
  7. ^ "Rhine River 90 km shorter than everyone thinks". The Local. 27 March 2010. Archived from the original on 19 August 2022. "We checked it out and came to 1,232 kilometers," said Ankie Pannekoek, spokeswoman for the Dutch government hydrology office.
  8. ^ "Length of the Rhine (Update 2015) | International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine basin (CHR)". www.chr-khr.org.
  9. ^ Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1898), p. 799. Sió eá ðe man hǽt Rín Orosius (ed. J. Bosworth 1859) 1.1
  10. ^ Rijn, Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek
  11. ^ [1] Schweizerisches Idiotikon s.v. Rī(n)] (6,994).
  12. OCLC 10374594
    .
  13. ^ Bosworth and Toller, An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1898), p. 799: Rín; m.; f. The Rhine [...] O. H. Ger. Rín; m.: Icel. Rín; f.
  14. ^ Schädler & Weingartner 2002, Table 1, row 10-4.
  15. ^ a b "Maps of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS" (online map). Vorderrhein. Gewässernetz 1:2 Mio. National Map 1:200 000 (in German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo. Berne, Switzerland: Federal Office for the Environment FOEN. 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2016 – via map.geo.admin.ch.
  16. ^ Schädler & Weingartner 2002, Table 1, row 10-6.
  17. ^ a b "Maps of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS" (online map). Alpenrhein. Gewässernetz 1:2 Mio. National Map 1:2 Mio (in German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo. Berne, Switzerland: Federal Office for the Environment FOEN. 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2016 – via map.geo.admin.ch.
  18. ^ Schädler & Weingartner 2002, Table 1, row 10-7.
  19. ^ a b "Maps of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS" (online map). Lake Constance. Gewässernetz 1:200 000, Flussordnung. National Map 1:2 Mio (in German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo. Berne, Switzerland: Federal Office for the Environment FOEN. 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2016 – via map.geo.admin.ch.
  20. ^ Schädler & Weingartner 2002, Table 1, row 10-12 "Rhein–Landesgrenze (Gesamtgebiet)".
  21. ISSN 0377-905X
    .
  22. ^ Schädler & Weingartner 2002, Table 1, row 20-10.
  23. ^ Schädler & Weingartner 2002, Table 1, row 10-10.
  24. ^ a b "Maps of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS" (online map). High Rhine. Gewässernetz 1:2 Mio. National Map 1:2 Mio (in German). Cartography by Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo. Berne, Switzerland: Federal Office for the Environment FOEN. 2014. Retrieved 5 January 2016 – via map.geo.admin.ch.
  25. ^ "Atlas der Schweiz Switzerland maps by Swiss Federal Office of Topography". Archived from the original on 9 June 2011.
  26. . Retrieved 1 March 2018 – via map.geo.admin.ch.
  27. . Retrieved 28 February 2018 – via map.geo.admin.ch.
  28. ^ "85 Senda Sursilvana (5 Etappen)". maps.graubuenden.ch.
  29. ^ Bergmeister, U.; Kalt, L. "Geschiebeführung" [Conveyance of bedload] (in German). Lustenau: Internationale Rheinregulierung. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012.
  30. ^ Schädler & Weingartner 2002, Table 1, rows 10-10 and 20-10.
  31. ^ Cioc 2002, pp. 48–49.
  32. ^ Cioc 2002, p. 52.
  33. ^ Cioc 2002, p. 53.
  34. ^ a b Cioc 2002, p. 54.
  35. ^ Cioc 2002, p. 56.
  36. OCLC 319211428
    .
  37. ^ a b Berendsen & Stouthamer 2001
  38. ^ Ménot et al. 2006.
  39. ^ Cohen, Stouthamer & Berendsen 2002.
  40. ^ Hoffmann et al. 2007.
  41. ^ Gouw & Erkens 2007.

Bibliography

External links