Rhizocephala
Rhizocephala | |
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Externa (highlighted) of mature female Sacculina on a female Liocarcinus holsatus | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Arthropoda |
Class: | Thecostraca |
Subclass: | Cirripedia |
Infraclass: | Rhizocephala Müller, 1862 |
Rhizocephala are derived
Description and lifecycle
As adults they lack
In the order Kentrogonida, the virgin externa contains no openings at first. But it soon molts to a second stage that contains an orifice known as the mantle departure, and which leads into the two receptacle passageways — once assumed to be the testes in hermaphroditic parasites before the realization that they were actually two separate sexes — and starts releasing pheromones to attract male cyprids. From inside the body of the male cypris that succeeds in entering the departure, a unique and very short lived male stage called the trichogen emerges through the antennule opening. It is the homologue of the female kentrogon, but is reduced to an amoeboid unsegmented cuticle-covered mass of cells consisting of three to four cell-types: the dorsolateral, the ventral epidermis, the inclusion cells, and the postganglion. The externa have room for two males, one for each of the receptacles, which increase the heterozygosity of the offspring. Once inside, the trichogen will shed its cuticle before reaching the end of the passageway.[11][12][13]
In the order Akentrogonida, which form a monophyletic group nested within the paraphyletic Kentrogonida,[14] the male does not develop into a trichogon, and the cypris injects its cell mass through its antennule and directly into the body of the immature externa. The offspring also hatch directly into fully developed cyprids instead of nauplius larvae (except for a few species of kentrogonid rhizocephalans, which hatch into cyprids like the akentrogonids, the kentrogonids have kept their nauplius stage). In species like Clistosaccus paguri, the male injects its cluster of cells which migrates through the connective tissue of the mantle and into the receptacle. But in forms like Sylon hippolytes the receptacle is absent, and the males cells implant in the ovary instead.[15] While only a single male can settle in each receptacle, which is the rule in Kentrogonida, the number of implanted males in Akentrogonida can range from just one to more than ten.[16]
The small cluster of cells injected by the male cypris will, once it reaches its destination inside the female, differentiate into a loosely connected mass of sperm-producing germ cells. Being nothing more than sperm-forming cells, these adult male rhizocephalans represent the simplest form of male in the entire animal kingdom. Mature female externa releases eggs into its mantle cavity where eggs are fertilised by sperm from the hyper-parasitic male(s). Due to the larval sexual dimorphism in the Kentrogonida, the females produce two different egg sizes; small female eggs and larger male eggs.[17][18] It appears the sex determination in Akentrogonida is environmental.[19]
In Peltogasterella gracilis, the externa produces several batches of larvae before it drops off the host, taking the male(s) inside with it. After the original externa disappear, the host moults and the interna grows buds that each develops into a new virgin externa. The females commonly has two cypris cell receptacles. With more than one externa, and new ones replacing the old ones, each female Peltogasterella can receive sperm from numerous males during its lifetime.[citation needed]
The externa is where the host's egg sac would be, and the host's behaviour is chemically altered: it is castrated and does not moult until aged externa(e) drop(s) off. The host treats the externa as if it were its own egg sac.[8] This behaviour even extends to male hosts, which would never have carried eggs, but care for the externa in the same way as females.[8][failed verification]
Classification
Following an updated classification of barnacles by Chan et al. (2021), the subgroups
- Family Chthamalophilidae Bocquet-Védrine, 1961
- Family Clistosaccidae Boschma, 1928
- Family Duplorbidae Høeg & Rybakov, 1992
- Family MycetomorphidaeHøeg & Rybakov, 1992
- Family ParthenopeidaeRybakov & Høeg, 2013
- Family Peltogasterellidae Høeg & Glenner, 2019
- Family Peltogastridae Lilljeborg, 1861
- Family PirusaccidaeHøeg & Glenner, 2019
- Family Polyascidae Høeg & Glenner, 2019
- Family PolysaccidaeLützen & Takahashi, 1996
- Family Sacculinidae Lilljeborg, 1861
- Family Thompsoniidae Høeg & Rybakov, 1992
- Family TriangulidaeHøeg & Glenner, 2019
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Clistosaccus paguri (Akentrogonida)
Phylogeny
The following cladogram summarizes the internal relationships of Rhizocephala as of 2020,[21] as well as the number of species in each family.[3]
Rhizocephala |
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See also
References
- PMID 19374762.
- S2CID 41339146.
- ^ a b c
Chan, Benny K. K.; Dreyer, Niklas; Gale, Andy S.; Glenner, Henrik; et al. (2021). "The evolutionary diversity of barnacles, with an updated classification of fossil and living forms". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 193 (1): 789–846. hdl:11250/2990967.
- ^ "Etymology of the Latin word Rhizocephala". MyEtymology. Archived from the original on October 5, 2011. Retrieved June 24, 2011.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - S2CID 27832764.
- ISBN 978-1-4214-1197-2.
The Acrothoracica and Rhizocephala have exclusively lecithotrophic nauplii. The cypridoid larva is always lecithotrophic
- ISBN 978-1-4613-5228-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-306-47366-1.
- PMID 25035598.
- hdl:1956/12721.
- .
- ISBN 978-1-4090-0038-9.
In Sacculina and close relatives, the virgin externa contains no opening
- ISBN 978-0-203-40068-5.
The 'trichogon' was discovered, a new post-cypris male larval form which may be considered as an extremely reduced dwarf male
- PMID 19786021.
- ISBN 978-90-04-19083-2.
- ISBN 978-0-19-062028-8.
- PMID 28678878.
- S2CID 7703577.
- ISBN 978-3-319-94139-4.
- ^ "World Register of Marine Species, genus Concavus". Retrieved 2021-08-22.
- ^
T. Høeg, Jens; Noever, Christoph; A. Rees, David; A. Crandall, Keith; Glenner, Henrik (2020), "A new molecular phylogeny-based taxonomy of parasitic barnacles (Crustacea: Cirripedia: Rhizocephala)", Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 190 (2): 632–653, hdl:1956/23159
External links
- Data related to Rhizocephala at Wikispecies
- Media related to Rhizocephala at Wikimedia Commons