Rice

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Rice plant (Oryza sativa) with branched panicles containing many grains on each stem
Rice grains of different varieties at the International Rice Research Institute

Rice is a

rice blast. Traditional polycultures such as rice-duck farming, and modern integrated pest management seek to control damage from pests in a sustainable
way.

Many varieties of rice have been bred to improve crop quality and productivity. Biotechnology has created Green Revolution rice able to produce high yields when supplied with nitrogen fertilizer and managed intensively. Other products are rice able to express human proteins for medicinal use; flood-tolerant or deepwater rice; and drought-tolerant and salt-tolerant varieties. Rice is used as a model organism in biology.

Dry rice grain is milled to remove the outer layers; depending on how much is removed, products range from brown rice to rice with germ and white rice. Some is

essential amino acids needed for good health. Rice of different types is eaten around the world. Long-grain rice tends to stay intact on cooking; medium-grain rice is stickier, and is used for sweet dishes, and in Italy for risotto; and sticky short-grain rice is used in Japanese sushi as it keeps its shape when cooked. White rice when cooked contains 29% carbohydrate and 2% protein, with some manganese. Golden rice is a variety produced by genetic engineering to contain vitamin A
.

Production of rice is estimated to have caused over 1% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2022. Rice yields are predicted to fall by some 20% with each 1°C rise in global mean temperature. In human culture, rice plays a role in certain religions and traditions, such as in weddings.

Description

The rice plant can grow to over 1 m (3 ft) tall; if in deep water, it can reach a length of 5 m (16 ft). A single plant may have several leafy stems or

anthers and ovule). A fertilised ovule develops into the edible grain or caryopsis.[2]

Rice is a cereal belonging to the family

ratoon crop.[4]

  • Anatomy of rice flowers: spikelet (left), plant with tillers (centre), caryopsis (top right), panicle (right)
    Anatomy of rice flowers: spikelet (left), plant with tillers (centre), caryopsis (top right), panicle (right)
  • Detail of rice plant showing flowers grouped in panicle. Male anthers protrude into the air where they can disperse their pollen.
    Detail of rice plant showing flowers grouped in panicle. Male
    anthers protrude into the air where they can disperse their pollen
    .

Agronomy

Growing

Like all crops, rice depends for its growth on both biotic and abiotic environmental factors. The principal biotic factors are crop variety, pests, and plant diseases. Abiotic factors include the soil type, whether lowland or upland, amount of rain or irrigation water, temperature, day length, and intensity of sunlight.[5]

Rice grains can be planted directly into the field where they will grow, or seedlings can be grown in a seedbed and transplanted into the field. Direct seeding needs some 60 to 80 kg of grain per hectare, while transplanting needs less, around 40 kg per hectare, but requires far more labour.

rainfed like wheat or maize.[11]

Harvesting

Across Asia, unmilled rice or "paddy" (Indonesian and Malay padi), was traditionally the product of

reaping, stacking the cut stalks, threshing to separate the grain, and cleaning by winnowing or screening.[13] The rice grain is dried as soon as possible to bring the moisture content down to a level that is safe from mould fungi. Traditional drying relies on the heat of the sun, with the grain spread out on mats or on pavements.[14]

  • Rice combine harvester in Chiba Prefecture, Japan
  • After the harvest, rice straw is gathered in the traditional way from small paddy fields in Mae Wang District, Thailand
    After the harvest, rice straw is gathered in the traditional way from small paddy fields in
    Mae Wang District
    , Thailand
  • Burning of rice residues to prepare the land for wheat planting in Sangrur, India
    Burning of rice residues to prepare the land for wheat planting in Sangrur, India
  • Drying rice in Peravoor, India
    Drying rice in Peravoor, India

Evolution

Phylogeny

The edible rice species are members of the

Bambusoideae, and the cereal subfamily Pooideae. The rice genus Oryza is one of eleven in the Oryzeae; it is sister to the Phyllorachideae. The edible rice species O. sativa and O. glaberrima are among some 300 species or subspecies in the genus.[15]

Poaceae

other grasses

PACMAD clade

(inc. the C4 grasses, maize, sorghum)

BOP clade
Oryzoideae

Streptogyneae

Ehrharteae

Phyllorachideae

Oryzeae

Wild rices inc.

Zizania

Oryza

other rice species and subspecies

O. sativa (Asian rice)

O. glaberrima (African rice)

Bambusoideae
(bamboos)

Pooideae (grasses and cereals inc. wheat, barley)

History

Bas-relief of 9th century Borobudur in Indonesia describes rice barns and rice plants infested by mice.

Yangtze River basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago.[16] The functional allele for nonshattering, the critical indicator of domestication in grains, as well as five other single-nucleotide polymorphisms, is identical in both indica and japonica. This implies a single domestication event for O. sativa.[17] Both indica and japonica forms of Asian rice sprang from a single domestication event in China from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon.[16][17] Despite this evidence, it appears that indica rice arose when japonica arrived in India about 4,500 years ago and hybridised with another rice, whether an undomesticated proto-indica or wild O. nivara.[18] Further, rice grains with signs of having been cut have been found alongside stone tools dated to 17,300 years ago at Sorori in Korea. This implies domestication in progress, far from the Yangtze River basin, at an earlier date.[19]

Cultivation, migration and trade spread rice around the world—first to much of east Asia, then further abroad, and eventually to the Americas as part of the Columbian exchange after 1492.[20] The now less common Oryza glaberrima (African rice) was independently domesticated in Africa around 3,000 years ago,[20] and introduced to the Americas by the Spanish.[21]

Commerce

Rice production – 2021
Country Millions of tonnes
 China 213
 India 195
 Bangladesh 57
 Indonesia 54
 Vietnam 44
 Thailand 30
World 787[22]

Production

In 2021, world production of rice was 787 million tonnes, led by China and India with a combined 52% of the total.[22] This placed rice fourth in the list of crops by production, after sugarcane, maize, and wheat.[23] Other major producers were Bangladesh, Indonesia and Vietnam.[23] 90% of world production is from Asia.[24]

  • Production of rice (2021)[23]
    Production of rice (2021)[23]
  • Rice's share (orange) of world crop production fell in the 21st century.
    Rice's share (orange) of world crop production fell in the 21st century.

Yield records

The average world yield for rice was 4.7 metric tons per hectare (2.1 short tons per acre), in 2022.[25] Yuan Longping of China's National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center set a world record for rice yield in 1999 at 17.1 metric tons per hectare (7.6 short tons per acre) on a demonstration plot. This employed specially developed hybrid rice and the System of Rice Intensification (SRI), an innovation in rice farming.[26]

Food security

Rice is a major food staple in Asia, Latin America, and some parts of Africa,[27] feeding over half the world's population.[24] However, a substantial part of the crop can be lost post-harvest through inefficient transportation, storage, and milling. A quarter of the crop in Nigeria is lost after harvest. Storage losses include damage by mould fungi if the rice is not dried sufficiently. In China, losses in modern metal silos were just 0.2%, compared to 7–13% when rice was stored by rural households.[28]

Processing

The dry grain is milled to remove the outer layers, namely the

essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health.[32]

Trade

World trade figures are much smaller than those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally. China, an exporter of rice in the early 2000s, had become the world's largest importer of rice by 2013.[33] Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade; by 2012, India was the largest exporter of rice, with Thailand and Vietnam the other largest exporters.[34]

Worldwide consumption

As of 2016, the countries that consumed the most rice were China (29% of total), India, and Indonesia.[35] By 2020, Bangladesh had taken third place from Indonesia. On an annual average from 2020-23, China consumed 154 million tonnes of rice, India consumed 109 million tonnes, and Bangladesh and Indonesia consumed about 36 million tonnes each. Across the world, rice consumption per capita fell in the 21st century as people in Asia and elsewhere ate less grain and more meat. An exception is Sub-Saharan Africa, where both per capita consumption of rice and population are increasing.[36]

Food

Cooked white rice, medium-grain, unenriched
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy544 kJ (130 kcal)
28.6 g
0.2 g
2.4 g
Niacin (B3)
3%
0.4 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
8%
0.41 mg
Vitamin B6
4%
0.05 mg
Folate (B9)
1%
2 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV
Calcium
0%
3 mg
Iron
2%
0.2 mg
Magnesium
4%
13 mg
Manganese
18%
0.38 mg
Phosphorus
5%
37 mg
Potassium
1%
29 mg
Sodium
0%
0 mg
Zinc
4%
0.4 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water69 g

Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults.[37]

Eating qualities

Rice is commonly consumed as food around the world. The

varieties of rice are typically classified as short-, medium-, and long-grained. Short-grain rices include Italian Arborio rice for risotto. Medium-grain rices include Japanese sushi rice, which is slightly sticky. Long-grain rices include South Asian Basmati, with a nutty flavour, and Thai Jasmine rice with a flowery aroma and soft texture.[38]

Nutrition

Cooked white rice is 69% water, 29%

In 2018, the

Golden rice

Golden rice is a variety produced through

Nobel laureates encouraged the use of genetically modified organisms, such as golden rice, for the benefits these could bring.[44]

Rice and climate change

Greenhouse gases from rice

Scientists measure the greenhouse gas emissions of rice.

In 2022,

anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil.[48] Emissions can be limited by planting new varieties, not flooding continuously, and removing straw.[49]

Effect of global warming on rice

A 2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the later years of the 20th century, the rice yield, measured at over 200 farms in seven Asian countries, decreased by between 10% and 20%. This may be caused by increased night-time respiration.[50][51] IRRI has predicted that Asian rice yields will fall by some 20% per 1°C rise in global mean temperature. Further, rice is unable to yield grain if the flowers experience a temperature of 35°C or more for over one hour, so the crop would be lost under these conditions.[52][53]

In the Po Valley in Italy, the arborio and carnaroli risotto rice varieties have suffered poor harvests through drought in the 21st century. The Ente Nazionale Risi [it] is developing drought-resistant varieties; its nuovo prometeo variety has deep roots that enable it to tolerate drought, but is not suitable for risotto.[54]

Pests, weeds, and diseases

Pests and weeds

Chinese rice grasshopper (Oxya chinensis)

Rice yield can be reduced by weed growth, and a wide variety of pests including insects, nematodes, rodents such as rats, snails, and birds.

nitrogen fertilizer application may worsen aphid outbreaks.[57]
Weather conditions can contribute to pest outbreaks: rice
gall midge outbreaks are worsened by high rainfall in the wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought.[58]

Diseases

Healthy rice (left) and rice with rice blast

Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea, is the most serious disease of growing rice.[59] It and

tungro, and rice yellow mottle.[61]

Pest management

Crop protection scientists are developing sustainable techniques for managing rice pests.[62] Sustainable pest management is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance, landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape—from biological to social.[63] Farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary.[64] Pesticides may actually induce resurgence of populations of rice pests such as planthoppers, both by destroying beneficial insects and by enhancing the pest's reproduction.[65] The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers.[66]

A farmer grazes his ducks in paddy fields, Central Java

Farmers in China, Indonesia and the Philippines have traditionally managed weeds and pests by the polycultural practice of raising ducks and sometimes fish in their rice paddies. These produce valuable additional crops, eat small pest animals, manure the rice, and in the case of ducks also control weeds.[67][68]

Rice plants produce their own chemical defences to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plant's resistance to some types of pests.[69] Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid, appear to induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that make the plant more susceptible to certain pests.[70]

Plant breeders have created rice cultivars incorporating

resistance to various insect pests. Conventional plant breeding of resistant varieties has been limited by challenges such as rearing insect pests for testing, and the great diversity and continuous evolution of pests. Resistance genes are being sought from wild species of rice, and genetic engineering techniques are being applied.[71]

Ecotypes and cultivars

IRRI

The

sticky or glutinous rice varieties.[74] High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in Africa, called the New Rice for Africa (NERICA), have been developed to improve food security and alleviate poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa.[75]

The complete genome of rice was sequenced in 2005, making it the first crop plant to reach this status.[76] Since then, the genomes of hundreds of types of rice, both wild and cultivated, and including both Asian and African rice species, have been sequenced.[77]

Biotechnology

High-yielding varieties

The high-yielding varieties are a group of crops created during the Green Revolution to increase global food production radically. The first Green Revolution rice variety, IR8, was produced in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee Geo Woo Gen".[78] Green Revolution varieties were bred to have short strong stems so that the rice would not lodge or fall over. This enabled them to stay upright and productive even with heavy applications of fertilizer.[78]

Expression of human proteins

oral rehydration solutions to treat diarrheal diseases, thereby shortening their duration and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may also help reverse anemia.[80]

Flood-tolerant rice

International Rice Research Institute researchers checking deepwater rice in the Philippines

In areas subject to

South East Asia, flooding affects some 20 million hectares (49 million acres) each year.[81]
Flooding has historically led to massive losses in yields, such as in the Philippines, where in 2006, rice crops worth $65 million were lost to flooding.[82] Standard rice varieties cannot withstand stagnant flooding for more than about a week, since it disallows the plant access to necessary requirements such as sunlight and gas exchange. The Swarna Sub1 cultivar can tolerate week-long submergence, consuming carbohydrates efficiently and continuing to grow.[81]

Drought-tolerant rice

nutrients from the soil, conventional commercial rice varieties can be severely affected—as happened for example in India early in the 21st century.[85]

The

upland rice variety Kinandang Patong, into the popular commercial rice variety IR64, giving rise to a far deeper root system in the resulting plants.[85] This facilitates an improved ability for the rice plant to derive its required nutrients in times of drought via accessing deeper layers of soil, a feature demonstrated by trials which saw the IR64 + DRO1 rice yields drop by 10% under moderate drought conditions, compared to 60% for the unmodified IR64 variety.[85][86]

Salt-tolerant rice

Soil salinity poses a major threat to rice crop productivity, particularly along low-lying coastal areas during the dry season.[83][87] For example, roughly 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres) of the coastal areas of Bangladesh are affected by saline soils.[88] These high concentrations of salt can severely affect rice plants' physiology, especially during early stages of growth, and as such farmers are often forced to abandon these areas.[89]

Progress has been made in developing rice varieties capable of tolerating such conditions; the hybrid created from the cross between the commercial rice variety IR56 and the wild rice species Oryza coarctata is one example.[90] O. coarctata can grow in soils with double the limit of salinity of normal varieties, but does not produce edible rice.[90] Developed by the International Rice Research Institute, the hybrid variety utilises specialised leaf glands that remove salt into the atmosphere. It was produced from one successful embryo out of 34,000 crosses between the two species; this was then backcrossed to IR56 with the aim of preserving the genes responsible for salt tolerance that were inherited from O. coarctata.[89]

Environment-friendly rice

Producing rice in paddies is harmful for the environment due to the release of methane by methanogenic bacteria. These bacteria live in the anaerobic waterlogged soil, consuming nutrients released by rice roots. Putting the barley gene SUSIBA2 into rice creates a shift in biomass production from root to shoot, decreasing the methanogen population, and resulting in a reduction of methane emissions of up to 97%. Further, the modification increases the amount of rice grains.[91][92]

Model organism

Rice is used as a model organism for investigating the mechanisms of meiosis and DNA repair in higher plants.[93] For example, study using rice has shown that the gene OsRAD51C is necessary for the accurate repair of DNA double-strand breaks during meiosis.[94]

In human culture

Ancient statue of the rice goddess Dewi Sri from Java (c. 9th century)

Rice plays an important role in certain religions and popular beliefs. In Hindu wedding ceremonies, rice, denoting fertility, prosperity, and purity, is thrown into the sacred fire, a custom modified in Western weddings, where people throw rice.[95] In Malay weddings, rice features in multiple special wedding foods such as sweet glutinous rice.[96] In Japan and the Philippines, rice wine is used for weddings and other celebrations.[97] Dewi Sri is a goddess of the Indo-Malaysian archipelago, who in myth is transformed into rice or other crops.[98] The start of the rice planting season is marked in Asian countries including Nepal and Cambodia with a Royal Ploughing Ceremony.[99][100][101]

See also

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