Richard III of England
Richard III | |
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Bosworth Field, Leicestershire, England | |
Burial | 25 August 1485[1] |
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Issue Detail |
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Cecily Neville | |
Signature |
Richard III (2 October 1452 – 22 August 1485) was
Richard was created
There were two major rebellions against Richard during his reign. In October 1483, an unsuccessful revolt was led by staunch allies of Edward IV and Richard's former ally, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. Then, in August 1485, Henry Tudor and his uncle, Jasper Tudor, landed in Wales with a contingent of French troops, and marched through Pembrokeshire, recruiting soldiers. Henry's forces defeated Richard's army near the Leicestershire town of Market Bosworth. Richard was slain, making him the last English king to die in battle. Henry Tudor then ascended the throne as Henry VII.
Richard's corpse was taken to the nearby town of
Early life
Richard was born on 2 October 1452, at
When their father and elder brother
Richard spent several years during his childhood at Middleham Castle in Wensleydale, Yorkshire, under the tutelage of his cousin Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, later known as 'the Kingmaker' because of his role in the Wars of the Roses. Warwick supervised Richard's training as a knight; in the autumn of 1465, Edward IV granted Warwick 1,000 pounds for the expenses of his younger brother's tutelage.[10] With some interruptions, Richard stayed at Middleham either from late 1461 until early 1465, when he was 12[11] or from 1465 until his coming of age in 1468, when he turned 16.[note 1] While at Warwick's estate, it is likely that he met both Francis Lovell, who was his firm supporter later in his life, and Warwick's younger daughter, his future wife Anne Neville.[13]
It is possible that even at this early stage Warwick was considering the king's brothers as strategic matches for his daughters, Isabel and Anne: young aristocrats were often sent to be raised in the households of their intended future partners,[14] as had been the case for the young dukes' father, Richard of York.[15] As the relationship between the king and Warwick became strained, Edward IV opposed the match.[16] During Warwick's lifetime, George was the only royal brother to marry one of his daughters, the elder, Isabel, on 12 July 1469, without the king's permission. George joined his father-in-law's revolt against the king,[17] while Richard remained loyal to Edward, even though he was rumoured to have been having an affair with Anne.[18][note 2]
Richard and Edward were forced to flee to
During his adolescence, and due to a cause that is unknown, Richard developed a sideways curvature of the spine (
Marriage and family relationships
Following a decisive Yorkist victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury, Richard married Anne Neville on 12 July 1472.
The Croyland Chronicle records that Richard agreed to a prenuptial contract in the following terms: "the marriage of the Duke of Gloucester with Anne before-named was to take place, and he was to have such and so much of the earl's lands as should be agreed upon between them through the mediation of arbitrators; while all the rest were to remain in the possession of the Duke of Clarence".[29] The date of Paston's letter suggests the marriage was still being negotiated in February 1472. In order to win George's final consent to the marriage, Richard renounced most of the Earl of Warwick's land and property including the earldoms of Warwick (which the Kingmaker had held in his wife's right) and Salisbury and surrendered to George the office of Great Chamberlain of England.[30] Richard retained Neville's forfeit estates he had already been granted in the summer of 1471:[31][32] Penrith, Sheriff Hutton and Middleham, where he later established his marital household.[33]
The requisite papal dispensation was obtained dated 22 April 1472.[34] Michael Hicks has suggested that the terms of the dispensation deliberately understated the degrees of consanguinity between the couple, and the marriage was therefore illegal on the ground of first-degree consanguinity following George's marriage to Anne's sister Isabel.[24] There would have been first-degree consanguinity if Richard had sought to marry Isabel (in case of widowhood) after she had married his brother George, but no such consanguinity applied for Anne and Richard. Richard's marriage to Anne was never declared null, and it was public to everyone including secular and canon lawyers for 13 years.[35]
In June 1473, Richard persuaded his mother-in-law to leave the sanctuary and come to live under his protection at Middleham. Later in the year, under the terms of the 1473 Act of Resumption,
Reign of Edward IV
Estates and titles
Richard was granted the Dukedom of Gloucester on 1 November 1461,
Exile and return
During the latter part of Edward IV's reign, Richard demonstrated his loyalty to the king,
1471 military campaign
Once Edward had regained the support of his brother George, he mounted a swift and decisive campaign to regain the crown through combat;
1475 invasion of France
At least in part resentful of King Louis XI's previous support of his Lancastrian opponents, and possibly in support of his brother-in-law Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, Edward went to parliament in October 1472 for funding a military campaign,
The North, and the Council in the North
Richard was the dominant magnate in the north of England until Edward IV's death.
War with Scotland
Richard's increasing role in the north from the mid-1470s to some extent explains his withdrawal from the royal court. He had been Warden of the West March on the Scottish border since 10 September 1470,[85] and again from May 1471; he used Penrith as a base while 'taking effectual measures' against the Scots, and 'enjoyed the revenues of the estates' of the Forest of Cumberland while doing so.[86] It was at the same time that the Duke of Gloucester was appointed High Sheriff of Cumberland for five consecutive years, being described as 'of Penrith Castle' in 1478.[87]
By 1480, war with Scotland was looming; on 12 May that year, he was appointed Lieutenant-General of the North (a position created for the occasion) as fears of a Scottish invasion grew. Louis XI of France had attempted to negotiate a military alliance with Scotland (in the tradition of the "Auld Alliance"), with the aim of attacking England, according to a contemporary French chronicler.[88] Richard had the authority to summon the Border Levies and issue Commissions of Array to repel the Border raids. Together with the Earl of Northumberland, he launched counter-raids, and when the king and council formally declared war in November 1480, he was granted 10,000 pounds for wages.
The king failed to arrive to lead the English army and the result was intermittent skirmishing until early 1482. Richard witnessed the treaty with
Lord Protector
On the death of Edward IV on 9 April 1483, his 12-year-old son, Edward V, succeeded him. Richard was named Lord Protector of the Realm and at Baron Hastings' urging, Richard assumed his role and left his base in Yorkshire for London.[91] On 29 April, as previously agreed, Richard and his cousin, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, met Queen Elizabeth's brother, Anthony Woodville, Earl Rivers, at Northampton. At the queen's request, Earl Rivers was escorting the young king to London with an armed escort of 2,000 men, while Richard and Buckingham's joint escort was 600 men.[92] Edward V had been sent further south to Stony Stratford. At first convivial, Richard had Earl Rivers, his nephew Richard Grey and his associate, Thomas Vaughan, arrested. They were taken to Pontefract Castle, where they were executed on 25 June on the charge of treason against the Lord Protector after appearing before a tribunal led by Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland. Rivers had appointed Richard as executor of his will.[93]
After having Rivers arrested, Richard and Buckingham moved to Stony Stratford, where Richard informed Edward V of a plot aimed at denying him his role as protector and whose perpetrators had been dealt with.[94] He proceeded to escort the king to London. They entered the city on 4 May, displaying the carriages of weapons Rivers had taken with his 2,000-man army. Richard first accommodated Edward in the Bishop's apartments; then, on Buckingham's suggestion, the king was moved to the royal apartments of the Tower of London, where kings customarily awaited their coronation.[95] Within the year 1483, Richard had moved himself to the grandeur of Crosby Hall, London, then in Bishopsgate in the City of London. Robert Fabyan, in his 'The new chronicles of England and of France', writes that "the Duke caused the King (Edward V) to be removed unto the Tower and his broder with hym, and the Duke lodged himselfe in Crosbyes Place in Bisshoppesgate Strete."[96] In Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, he accounts that "little by little all folke withdrew from the Tower, and drew unto Crosbies in Bishops gates Street, where the Protector kept his houshold. The Protector had the resort; the King in maner desolate."[97]
On hearing the news of her brother's 30 April arrest, the dowager queen fled to sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. Joining her were her son by her first marriage, Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset; her five daughters; and her youngest son, Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York.[98] On 10/11 June, Richard wrote to Ralph, Lord Neville, the City of York and others asking for their support against "the Queen, her blood adherents and affinity" whom he suspected of plotting his murder.[99] At a council meeting on 13 June at the Tower of London, Richard accused Hastings and others of having conspired against him with the Woodvilles and accusing Jane Shore, lover to both Hastings and Thomas Grey, of acting as a go-between. According to Thomas More, Hastings was taken out of the council chambers and summarily executed in the courtyard, while others, like Lord Thomas Stanley and John Morton, Bishop of Ely, were arrested.[100] Hastings was not attainted and Richard sealed an indenture that placed Hastings' widow, Katherine, under his protection.[101] Bishop Morton was released into the custody of Buckingham.[102] On 16 June, the dowager queen agreed to hand over the Duke of York to the Archbishop of Canterbury so that he might attend his brother Edward's coronation, still planned for 22 June.[103]
King of England
The princes, who were still lodged in the royal residence of the Tower of London at the time of Richard's coronation, disappeared from sight after the summer of 1483.[109] Although after his death Richard III was accused of having Edward and his brother killed, notably by More and in Shakespeare's play, the facts surrounding their disappearance remain unknown.[110] Other culprits have been suggested, including Buckingham and even Henry VII, although Richard remains a suspect.[111]
After the coronation ceremony, Richard and Anne set out on a royal progress to meet their subjects. During this journey through the country, the king and queen endowed
Buckingham's rebellion of 1483
In 1483, a conspiracy arose among a number of disaffected gentry, many of whom had been supporters of Edward IV and the "whole Yorkist establishment".[116][117] The conspiracy was nominally led by Richard's former ally, the Duke of Buckingham, although it had begun as a Woodville-Beaufort conspiracy (being "well underway" by the time of the Duke's involvement).[118][note 5] Davies has suggested that it was "only the subsequent parliamentary attainder that placed Buckingham at the centre of events", to blame a disaffected magnate motivated by greed, rather than "the embarrassing truth" that those opposing Richard were actually "overwhelmingly Edwardian loyalists".[120] It is possible that they planned to depose Richard III and place Edward V back on the throne, and that when rumours arose that Edward and his brother were dead, Buckingham proposed that Henry Tudor should return from exile, take the throne and marry Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV. It has also been pointed out that as this narrative stems from Richard's parliament of 1484, it should probably be treated "with caution".[121] For his part, Buckingham raised a substantial force from his estates in Wales and the Marches.[122] Henry, in exile in Brittany, enjoyed the support of the Breton treasurer Pierre Landais, who hoped Buckingham's victory would cement an alliance between Brittany and England.[123]
Some of Henry Tudor's ships ran into a storm and were forced to return to Brittany or Normandy, while Henry anchored off Plymouth for a week before learning of Buckingham's failure.
Death at the Battle of Bosworth Field
On 22 August 1485, Richard met the outnumbered forces of Henry Tudor at the
All accounts note that King Richard fought bravely and ably during this manoeuvre, unhorsing
After the Battle of Bosworth, Richard's naked body was then carried back to Leicester tied to a horse, and early sources strongly suggest that it was displayed in the collegiate
According to another tradition, Richard consulted a seer in Leicester before the battle who foretold that "where your spur should strike on the ride into battle, your head shall be broken on the return". On the ride into battle, his spur struck the bridge stone of Bow Bridge in the city; legend states that as his corpse was carried from the battle over the back of a horse, his head struck the same stone and was broken open.[158]
Issue
Richard and Anne had one son,
Richard had two acknowledged illegitimate children, John of Gloucester and Katherine Plantagenet. Also known as 'John of Pontefract', John of Gloucester was appointed Captain of Calais in 1485. Katherine married William Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, in 1484. Neither the birth dates nor the names of the mothers of either of the children are known. Katherine was old enough to be wedded in 1484, when the age of consent was twelve, and John was knighted in September 1483 in York Minster, and so most historians agree that they were both fathered when Richard was a teenager.[165][166] There is no evidence of infidelity on Richard's part after his marriage to Anne Neville in 1472 when he was around 20.[167] This has led to a suggestion by the historian A. L. Rowse that Richard "had no interest in sex".[168]
Michael Hicks and Josephine Wilkinson have suggested that Katherine's mother may have been Katherine Haute, on the basis of the grant of an annual payment of 100 shillings made to her in 1477. The Haute family was related to the Woodvilles through the marriage of Elizabeth Woodville's aunt, Joan Wydeville, to
Both of Richard's illegitimate children survived him, but they seem to have died without issue and their fate after Richard's demise at Bosworth is not certain. John received a 20-pound
Legacy
Richard's Council of the North, described as his "one major institutional innovation", derived from his ducal council following his own viceregal appointment by Edward IV; when Richard himself became king, he maintained the same conciliar structure in his absence.[178] It officially became part of the royal council machinery under the presidency of John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln in April 1484, based at Sandal Castle in Wakefield.[83] It is considered to have greatly improved conditions for northern England, as it was intended to keep the peace and punish lawbreakers, as well as resolve land disputes.[84] Bringing regional governance directly under the control of central government, it has been described as the king's "most enduring monument", surviving unchanged until 1641.[84]
In December 1483, Richard instituted what later became known as the
Richard's death at Bosworth resulted in the end of the
Reputation
There are numerous contemporary, or near-contemporary, sources of information about the reign of Richard III.[194] These include the Croyland Chronicle, Commines' Mémoires, the report of Dominic Mancini, the Paston Letters, the Chronicles of Robert Fabyan and numerous court and official records, including a few letters by Richard himself. However, the debate about Richard's true character and motives continues, both because of the subjectivity of many of the written sources, reflecting the generally partisan nature of writers of this period, and because none was written by men with an intimate knowledge of Richard.[195]
During Richard's reign, the historian John Rous praised him as a "good lord" who punished "oppressors of the commons", adding that he had "a great heart".[196][197] In 1483, the Italian observer Mancini reported that Richard enjoyed a good reputation and that both "his private life and public activities powerfully attracted the esteem of strangers".[198][199] His bond to the City of York, in particular, was such that on hearing of Richard's demise at the battle of Bosworth the City Council officially deplored the king's death, at the risk of facing the victor's wrath.[200]
During his lifetime he was the subject of some attacks. Even in the North in 1482, a man was prosecuted for offences against the Duke of Gloucester, saying he did "nothing but grin at" the city of York. In 1484, attempts to discredit him took the form of hostile placards, the only surviving one being
As for Richard's physical appearance, most contemporary descriptions bear out the evidence that aside from having one shoulder higher than the other (with chronicler Rous not able to correctly remember which one, as slight as the difference was), Richard had no other noticeable bodily deformity.
Richard's death encouraged the furtherance of this later negative image by his Tudor successors due to the fact that it helped to legitimise Henry VII's seizure of the throne.
Polydore Vergil and Thomas More expanded on this portrayal, emphasising Richard's outward physical deformities as a sign of his inwardly twisted mind. More describes him as "little of stature, ill-featured of limbs, crook-backed ... hard-favoured of visage".[197] Vergil also says he was "deformed of body ... one shoulder higher than the right".[197] Both emphasise that Richard was devious and flattering, while planning the downfall of both his enemies and supposed friends. Richard's good qualities were his cleverness and bravery. All these characteristics are repeated by Shakespeare, who portrays him as having a hunch, a limp and a withered arm.[217][218] With regard to the "hunch", the second quarto edition of Richard III (1598) used the term "hunched-backed" but in the First Folio edition (1623) it became "bunch-backed".[219]
Richard's reputation as a promoter of legal fairness persisted, however. William Camden in his Remains Concerning Britain (1605) states that Richard, "albeit he lived wickedly, yet made good laws".[220] Francis Bacon also states that he was "a good lawmaker for the ease and solace of the common people".[221] In 1525, Cardinal Wolsey upbraided the aldermen and Mayor of London for relying on a statute of Richard to avoid paying an extorted tax (benevolence) but received the reply "although he did evil, yet in his time were many good acts made."[222][223]
Richard was a practising Catholic, as shown by his personal
Despite this, the image of Richard as a ruthless tyrant remained dominant in the 18th and 19th centuries. The 18th-century
Richard was not without his defenders, the first of whom was Sir George Buck, a descendant of one of the king's supporters, who completed The history of King Richard the Third in 1619. The authoritative Buck text was published only in 1979, though a corrupted version was published by Buck's great-nephew in 1646.[229] Buck attacked the "improbable imputations and strange and spiteful scandals" related by Tudor writers, including Richard's alleged deformities and murders. He located lost archival material, including the Titulus Regius, but also claimed to have seen a letter written by Elizabeth of York, according to which Elizabeth sought to marry the king.[230] Elizabeth's supposed letter was never produced. Documents which later emerged from the Portuguese royal archives show that after Queen Anne's death, Richard's ambassadors were sent on a formal errand to negotiate a double marriage between Richard and the Portuguese king's sister Joanna,[7] of Lancastrian descent,[231] and between Elizabeth of York and Joanna's cousin Manuel, Duke of Viseu (later King of Portugal).[165]
Significant among Richard's defenders was
Some 20th-century historians have been less inclined to moral judgement,[237] seeing Richard's actions as a product of the unstable times. In the words of Charles Ross, "the later fifteenth century in England is now seen as a ruthless and violent age as concerns the upper ranks of society, full of private feuds, intimidation, land-hunger, and litigiousness, and consideration of Richard's life and career against this background has tended to remove him from the lonely pinnacle of Villainy Incarnate on which Shakespeare had placed him. Like most men, he was conditioned by the standards of his age."[238] The Richard III Society, founded in 1924 as "The Fellowship of the White Boar", is the oldest of several Ricardian groups dedicated to improving his reputation. Other historians still describe him as a "power-hungry and ruthless politician" who was most probably "ultimately responsible for the murder of his nephews."[239][240]
In culture
Richard III is the protagonist of Richard III, one of William Shakespeare's history/tragedy plays. Apart from Shakespeare, he appears in many other works of literature. Two other plays of the Elizabethan era predated Shakespeare's work. The Latin-language drama Richardus Tertius (first known performance in 1580) by Thomas Legge is believed to be the first history play written in England. The anonymous play The True Tragedy of Richard III (c. 1590), performed in the same decade as Shakespeare's work, was probably an influence on Shakespeare.[241] Neither of the two plays places any emphasis on Richard's physical appearance, though the True Tragedy briefly mentions that he is "A man ill shaped, crooked backed, lame armed" and "valiantly minded, but tyrannous in authority". Both portray him as a man motivated by personal ambition, who uses everyone around him to get his way. Ben Jonson is also known to have written a play Richard Crookback in 1602, but it was never published and nothing is known about its portrayal of the king.[242]
One film adaptation of Shakespeare's play Richard III is the 1955 version directed and produced by Laurence Olivier, who also played the lead role.[251][252] Also notable are the 1995 film version starring Ian McKellen, set in a fictional 1930s fascist England,[253][254] and Looking for Richard, a 1996 documentary film directed by Al Pacino, who plays the title character as well as himself.[255][256] The play has been adapted for television on several occasions.[257][258][259]
Discovery of remains
On 24 August 2012, the University of Leicester, Leicester City Council and the Richard III Society, announced that they were going to look for the remains of King Richard. The search was managed by Philippa Langley of the Society's Looking for Richard Project with the archaeology run by University of Leicester Archaeological Services (ULAS).[260][261][262][263][264] The participants looked for the lost site of the former Greyfriars Church (demolished during Henry VIII's dissolution of the monasteries) to find his remains.[265][266] By comparing fixed points between maps, the church was found, where Richard's body had been hastily buried without pomp in 1485, its foundations identifiable beneath a modern city centre car park.[267] In 1975 Audrey Strange of the Richard III Society predicted that the lost grave lay beneath one of the three car parks that partly cover the site of the former Grey Friars Priory.[268] In the mid-1980s, academic David Baldwin, a medieval historian formerly of Leicester University, concluded that the burial site lay further to the east, beneath the northern (St Martin's) end of Grey Friars Street, or the buildings that face it on either side.[154][269]
The diggers found Greyfriars Church by 5 September 2012 and two days later announced that they had found Robert Herrick's garden, where the memorial to Richard III stood in the early 17th century.[270][271] A human skeleton was found beneath the Church's choir.[272]
Improbably, the excavators found the remains in the first dig at the
On 12 September, it was announced that the skeleton might be that of Richard III. Several reasons were given: the body was of an adult male; it was buried beneath the choir of the church; and there was severe scoliosis of the spine, possibly making one shoulder[270] higher than the other (to what extent depended on the severity of the condition). There was also what appeared to be an arrowhead embedded in the spine; and there were perimortem injuries to the skull. These included a shallow orifice which was probably caused by a rondel dagger, and a scooping depression to the skull that was probably inflicted by a sword.
Further, the bottom of the skull had a gaping hole, where a halberd had entered. Forensic pathologist Stuart Hamilton said this injury would have left the man's brain visible and certainly would have killed him. Jo Appleby, the osteo-archaeologist who excavated the skeleton, said it was “a mortal battlefield wound in the back of the skull". The base of the skull had another fatal wound from a bladed weapon thrust, leaving a jagged hole. Inside the skull, there was evidence that the blade penetrated to a depth of 10.5 centimetres (4.1 in).[276]
In total, the skeleton had 10 wounds: four minor injuries on the top of the skull, one dagger blow on the cheekbone, one cut on the lower jaw, two fatal injuries on the base of the skull, one cut on a rib bone, and one final wound on the pelvis that was probably inflicted after death. It is generally accepted that Richard's naked corpse was tied to the back of a horse, with his arms slung over one side and his legs and buttocks over the other. The angle of the blow on the pelvis suggests that one of those present stabbed Richard's right buttock with substantial force, as the cut extends from the back to the front of the pelvic bone, an action intended to humiliate. It is also possible that Richard and his corpse suffered other injuries which left no trace on the skeleton.[277][278][279]
British historian John Ashdown-Hill had used
On 4 February 2013, the University of Leicester confirmed that the skeleton was beyond reasonable doubt that of King Richard III. This conclusion was based on mitochondrial DNA evidence,
On 5 February 2013 Caroline Wilkinson of the University of Dundee conducted a facial reconstruction of Richard III, commissioned by the Richard III Society, based on 3D mappings of his skull.[296] The face is described as "warm, young, earnest and rather serious".[297] On 11 February 2014 the University of Leicester announced the project to sequence the entire genome of Richard III and one of his living relatives, Michael Ibsen, whose mitochondrial DNA confirmed the identification of the excavated remains. Richard III thus became the first ancient person of known historical identity whose genome has been sequenced.[298]
In November 2014, the results of the DNA testing were published, confirming that the maternal side was as previously thought.
Reburial and tomb
After his death in battle in 1485, Richard III's body was buried in Greyfriars Church in Leicester.[7] Following the discoveries of Richard's remains in 2012, it was decided that they should be reburied at Leicester Cathedral,[301] despite feelings in some quarters that he should have been reburied in York Minster.[302] Those who challenged the decision included fifteen "collateral [non-direct] descendants of Richard III",[303] represented by the Plantagenet Alliance, who believed that the body should be reburied in York, as they claim the king wished.[304] In August 2013, they filed a court case in order to contest Leicester's claim to re-inter the body within its cathedral, and propose the body be buried in York instead. However, Michael Ibsen, who gave the DNA sample that identified the king, gave his support to Leicester's claim to re-inter the body in their cathedral.[304] On 20 August, a judge ruled that the opponents had the legal standing to contest his burial in Leicester Cathedral, despite a clause in the contract which had authorized the excavations requiring his burial there. He urged the parties, though, to settle out of court in order to "avoid embarking on the Wars of the Roses, Part Two".[305][306] The Plantagenet Alliance, and the supporting fifteen collateral descendants, also faced the challenge that "Basic maths shows Richard, who had no surviving children but five siblings, could have millions of 'collateral' descendants"[303] undermining the group's claim to represent "the only people who can speak on behalf of him".[303] A ruling in May 2014 decreed that there are "no public law grounds for the Court interfering with the decisions in question".[307] The remains were taken to Leicester Cathedral on 22 March 2015 and reinterred on 26 March.[308]
His remains were carried in procession to the cathedral on 22 March 2015, and reburied on 26 March 2015
Richard's cathedral tomb was designed by the architects
Titles, styles, honours and arms
On 1 November 1461, Richard gained the title of Duke of Gloucester; in late 1461, he was invested as a Knight of the Garter.[322] Following the death of King Edward IV, he was made Lord Protector of England. Richard held this office from 30 April to 26 June 1483, when he became king. During his reign, Richard was styled Dei Gratia Rex Angliae et Franciae et Dominus Hiberniae (by the Grace of God, King of England and France and Lord of Ireland).
Informally, he may have been known as "Dickon", according to a sixteenth-century legend of a note, warning of treachery, that was sent to the Duke of Norfolk on the eve of Bosworth:
Jack of Norfolk, be not too bold,
For Dickon, thy master, is bought and sold.[323]
Arms
As Duke of Gloucester, Richard used the
Family trees
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See also
- King Richard III Visitor Centre, Leicester
- Ricardian (Richard III)
- Richard III Experience at Monk Bar, York
Explanatory notes
- ^ "From November 1461 until 1465 all references to Richard place him in locations south of the river Trent. It may have been partly to appease Warwick's injured feelings towards the rising influence of the king's new Woodville in-laws that he was given the honour of taking Richard into his household to complete his education, probably at some time in 1465".[12]
- ^ As late as 1469 rumours were still linking Richard's name with Anne Neville's. In August of that year, by which time Clarence had married Isabel, an Italian observer in London mistakenly reported that Warwick had married his two daughters to the king's brothers (Cal. Milanese Papers, I, pp. 118–120).
- ^ Says Kendall, "Richard had won his way back to Middleham Castle". However, any personal attachment he may have felt to Middleham was likely mitigated in his adulthood, as surviving records demonstrate he spent less time there than at Barnard Castle and Pontefract." "No great magnate or royal duke in the fifteenth century had a 'home' in the twentieth-century sense of the word. Richard of Gloucester formed no more of a personal attachment to Middleham than he did to Barnard Castle or Pontefract, at both of which surviving records suggest he spent more time."[48]
- ^ Hanham has raised "the charge of hypocrisy",[80] suggesting "that Richard would 'grin' at the city", and questioning whether he was either as popular or as devoted to the region as sometimes thought.[80]
- ^ Rosemary Horrox notes that "Buckingham was an exception amongst the rebels as, far from being a previous favourite, he 'had been refused any political role by Edward IV'."[119]
- ^ Specifically, in the Vinter's Hall, Thameside.[174]
References
Citations
- ^ Carson, Ashdown-Hill, Johnson, Johnson & Langley, p. 8.
- ^ Baldwin (2013).
- ^ Pollard (2000), p. 15.
- ^ Ross (1974), pp. 3–5.
- ^ Pollard (2008).
- ^ Griffiths (2008).
- ^ a b c d e Horrox (2013).
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 41–42.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 40.
- ^ Scofield (2016), p. 216, n.6, quoting Tellers' Roll, Mich. 5 Edw. IV (no. 36), m. 2.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 34–44, 74.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), pp. 36–37, 240.
- ^ a b Ross (1974), p. 9.
- ^ Licence (2013), p. 63.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 16–17.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 68.
- ^ Hicks (1980), p. 45.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 522.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 87–89.
- ^ "Spine". The Discovery of Richard III. University of Leicester. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
A very pronounced curve in the spine was visible when the body was first uncovered, evidence of scoliosis which may have meant that Richard's right shoulder was noticeably higher than his left....The type of scoliosis seen here is known as idiopathic adolescent onset scoliosis. The word idiopathic means that the reason for its development is not entirely clear, although there is probably a genetic component. The term adolescent onset indicates that the deformity wasn't present at birth, but developed after the age of ten. It is quite possible that the scoliosis was progressive...
- ^ "Richard III: Team rebuilds 'most famous spine'". London: BBC News. 29 May 2014. Retrieved 7 December 2014.
- ^ Duffin, Claire (17 August 2014). "Richard III, the 'hunchback king', really could have been a formidable warrior... and his body double can prove it". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
- ^ "Timeline". Richard III: Rumour and Reality. Institute for the Public Understanding of the Past, University of York. Retrieved 8 July 2014.
- ^ a b Hicks (2006).
- ^ a b Ross (1981), p. 21.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 27.
- ^ Hicks (1980), p. 115. The East Anglian Paston family have left historians a rich source of historical information for the lives of the English gentry of the period in a large collection of surviving letters.
- ^ Hicks (2009), pp. 81–82.
- ^ Riley (1908), p. 470.
- ^ Kendall (1956).
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 58.
- ^ "Northern Properties and Influence". Richard III: Rumour and Reality. Institute for the Public Understanding of the Past, University of York. CPR 1467–77, p. 260. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 128.
- ^ Clarke (2005), p. 1023. "In fact, [Richard and Anne] had sought a dispensation to marry from the penitentiary in early 1472, for it was granted on 22 April that year, and they probably married shortly afterwards."
- ^ Barnfield (2007), p. 85.
- ^ Cobbett (1807), p. 431.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 190.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 30.
- ^ Given-Wilson et al. (2005), "Edward IV: October 1472, Second Roll", items 20–24.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 31.
- ^ Hicks (1980), p. 132.
- ^ Hicks (1980), p. 146.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 6.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 9.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 136.
- ^ Hicks (2001), p. 74.
- ^ Hicks (2001), p. 82.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 125.
- ^ Hicks (2009), p. 75.
- ^ Hicks (2004). "After 1466 Clarence was not the ally for which Edward IV had presumably hoped. He embroiled himself in a dangerous feud in the north midlands and associated himself politically with Warwick, who graduated from direction of Edward's affairs in the early 1460s to outright opposition."
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 152.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 19.
- ^ Lulofs (1974).
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 155.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 153.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 159.
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- ^ a b Ross (1981), p. 34.
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- ^ a b Hanham (1975), p. 64.
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- ^ Booth (1997).
- ^ a b Ross (1981), p. 182.
- ^ a b c Ross (1981), p. 183.
- ^ Scofield (2016), p. 534.
- ^ Ferguson (1890), p. 238.
- ^ Lysons & Lysons (1816), "Parishes: Newton-Regny – Ponsonby", pp. 142–150.
- ^ Ross (1974), p. 278, citing Phillipe de Commynes
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 143, n. 53. However, Ross cites a letter from Edward IV in May 1480, the letter of appointment to his position as Lieutenant-General referred to his "proven capacity in the arts of war".
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 44–47.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 95.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 207–210.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 252–254.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 96citing Mancini.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 162–163.
- ^ "Robert Fabyan: 'The Concordaunce of Hystoryes' | Richard III Society – American Branch". Retrieved 13 May 2020.
- ^ "The history of Crosby Place | British History Online". british-history.ac.uk. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 212–213.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 99.
- ^ Horrox (2004).
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 209–210.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 20.
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 101.
- ^ Rous (1980), p. 63.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 215–216.
- ^ Hicks (2001), p. 117.
- better source needed]
- ^ Given-Wilson et al. (2005), "Richard III: January 1484", item 5.
- ^ Grummitt (2013), p. 116.
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 96–104.
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 487–489.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 290.
- ^ Jones (2014), pp. 96–97.
- ^ a b Wagner (1967), p. 130.
- ^ a b "History". College of Arms. Archived from the original on 1 June 2018. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
In 1484 [the Royal heralds] were granted a charter of incorporation by Richard III, and given a house in Coldharbour in Upper Thames Street, London to keep their records in.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 105.
- ^ Hicks (2009), p. 211.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 111.
- ^ Horrox (1989), p. 132.
- ^ Davies (2011).
- ^ Horrox (1989), p. 153.
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 105–119.
- ^ Costello (1855), pp. 17–18, 43–44.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 274.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 26, n. 2.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 25, n. 5.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), pp. 25–26.
- ^ Davies (2011). "Following Bosworth, Katherine Stafford was married, by 7 November 1485, to the new king's 55-year-old bachelor uncle, Jasper Tudor, now duke of Bedford."
- ^ Chrimes (1999), pp. 29–30.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 365.
- ^ Jones (2014).
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 367.
- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 55.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 218. "Northumberland's rearguard was never seriously engaged, nor could be, whatever the proclivities of its commander".
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 222.
- ^ Bennett (2008).
- ^ Bennett (2008). "Sir William Stanley was among the first to rally to Edward, and he may have brought [Thomas Stanley]'s good wishes with him ... Appointed steward of the king's household late in 1471, [Thomas Stanley] was thenceforward a regular member of the royal council.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 186.
- ^ Gillingham (1981), p. 244.
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 218, 222.
- ^ Ross (1981), pp. 223–224.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 368.
- ^ a b Griffiths (1993), p. 43.
- ^ Penn (2013), p. 9.
- ^ Rees (2008), p. 211. "The original Welsh is 'Lladd y baedd, eilliodd ei ben'. The usual meaning of eilliodd is 'shaved', which might mean 'chopped off' or 'sliced'"
- ^ Thomas, Jeffrey L. (2009). "Sir Rhys ap Thomas". Castles of Wales Website. Archived from the original on 24 November 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
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- ^ Ashdown-Hill et al. (2014).
- ^ Ashdown-Hill (2013), p. 94.
- ^ a b c Baldwin (1986), pp. 21–22.
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- ^ a b Baldwin (1986).
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- ^ Baldwin (1986), p. 24.
- ^ Ashdown-Hill (2015).
- ^ "Legends about the Battle of Bosworth". Richard III Society, American Branch. Archived from the original on 25 July 2006. Retrieved 5 July 2009.
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 29, n. 2. "1476".
- ^ Pollard (2004). "Although [Edward's date of birth] is usually attributed to 1474, the Tewkesbury chronicle records the birth of an unnamed son at Middleham in 1476."
- ^ Ross (1981), p. 33.
- ^ Pollard (2004). "The child Edward ... was created prince of Wales on 24 August [1483]. ... He was formally declared heir apparent to the throne in parliament in February 1484. ... by the end of March 1484 the prince was dead."
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 349–350, 563.
- ^ Williams (1983).
- ^ a b c d e Ashdown-Hill (2013).
- ^ Baldwin (2013), p. 42.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 387.
- ^ Rowse (1966), p. 190.
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- ^ Paget (1977).
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- ^ Barron (2004), p. 420.
- ^ Steer (2014).
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- ^ Cheetham & Fraser (1972).
- ISBN 978-1-873162-64-4.
- ^ Hanbury (1962), p. 106.
- ^ a b Kendall (1956), p. 340.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 341.
- ^ Hanbury (1962), p. 109.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 343.
- ^ a b c Hanbury (1962).
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- ^ Chrimes (1999), p. 92. "Tudor reason of State had claimed the first of its many victims."
- ^ "Back to Basics for Newcomers". Richard III Society, American Branch. Archived from the original on 8 April 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
- ^ Hanham (1975).
- ^ John Rous in Hanham (1975), p. 121.
- ^ a b c Ross (1981), pp. xxii–xxiv.
- ^ Langley & Jones (2013).
- ^ Kendall (1956), pp. 150–151, quoting from Mancini's De Occupatione Regni Anglie per Riccardum Tercium: "After the death of Clarence, he [Richard] came very rarely to court. He kept himself within his own lands and set out to acquire the loyalty of his people through favours and justice. The good reputation of his private life and public activities powerfully attracted the esteem of strangers. Such was his renown in warfare, that whenever a difficult and dangerous policy had to be undertaken, it would be entrusted to his direction and his generalship. By these arts, Richard acquired the favour of the people and avoided the jealousy of the queen, from whom he lived far separated."
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 444. "The day after the battle, John Sponer galloped into York to bring news of King Richard's overthrow...to the Mayor and Aldermen hastily assembled in the council chamber", "it was showed by...John Spooner...that king Richard, late mercifully reigning upon us, was through great treason piteously slain and murdered, to the great heaviness of this City". York Records, p. 218.
- ^ Hicks (2009), pp. 237–238.
- ^ Cheetham & Fraser (1972), pp. 175–176.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 395, quoting from the court minutes of the Mercer's company, 31 March 1485.
- ^ Hicks (2009), pp. 238–239.
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- ^ Buck (1647), p. 548.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 537.
- ^ Pollard (1991), p. 200 quoting York records, pp. 220–222
- ^ Hicks (2009), pp. 247–249.
- ^ a b Mackintosh, Eliza (4 February 2013). "'Beyond reasonable doubt,' bones are the remains of England's King Richard III". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Richard III, Folger Shakespeare Library
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 426. The comparison is with Barabas in Marlowe's Jew of Malta of a couple of years earlier.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 419.
- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 420.
- ^ Hammond, Peter (November 2003). "These Supposed Crimes: Four Major Accusations (the Murders of Edward of Lancaster, Henry VI, Clarence and Queene Anne) Discussed and Illustrated". To Prove a Villain: The Real Richard III (Exhibition at the Royal National Theatre, London, 27 March – 27 April 1991). Richard III Society, American Branch. Archived from the original on 14 July 2006. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
- ^ Potter (1994), p. 4.
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- ^ Kelly (2000), p. 134.
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Philippa Langley, who led the quest to find the remains of King Richard III ...
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- ^ Kendall (1956), p. 44. "By early February 1462 a helm, crest and sword marked his stall ... in the Chapel of St. George."
- ^ Grant (1972), p. 15.
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- Hanham, Alison (1975). Richard III and his early historians 1483–1535. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822434-1.
- OL 7517496M.
- ISBN 978-0-904-38744-5.
- —— (2001) [1991]. Richard III (revised illustrated ed.). Stroud, England: Tempus. ISBN 978-0752423029.
- —— (2004). "George, duke of Clarence". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/10542. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- —— (2006). Anne Neville: Queen to Richard III. Stroud, England: Tempus. ISBN 978-0752436630.
- —— (2009) [1991]. Richard III (3rd ed.). Stroud, England: History Press. ISBN 978-0752425894.
- ISBN 978-0-521-33428-0.
- —— (2004). "Hastings, William, first Baron Hastings". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/12588. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- —— (2013). "Richard III (1452–1485)". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/23500. Archived from the original on 9 February 2019. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- —— (1864) [First published 1789]. The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Cæsar to the Revolution in 1688. London: Longman. OCLC 165459692.
- Jones, Michael (2014). Bosworth 1485: Psychology of a Battle (new ed.). London: John Murray. ISBN 978-1848549081.
- Kelly, R. Gordon (2000). "Josephine Tey and Others: The Case of Richard III". In ISBN 978-0-87972-815-1.
- OL 7450809M.
- PMID 25463651.
- Kinross, John (1979). The Battlefields of Britain. Newton Abbot, England: David & Charles. ISBN 978-0882544830.
- Kleineke, Hannes (2007). "Richard III and the Origins of the Court of Requests" (PDF). The Ricardian. 17: 22–32.
- ISBN 978-1-84854-893-0.
- Legge, Alfred O. (1885). The Unpopular King: The Life and Times of Richard III. Vol. 1. London: Ward & Downey. OL 24188544M.
- Licence, Amy (2013). Anne Neville: Richard III's Tragic Queen. Stroud, England: Amberley. ISBN 978-1445611532.
- Lulofs, Maaike (1974). "King Edward in Exile". The Ricardian. 3 (44): 9–11.
- Lysons, Daniel; Lysons, Samuel (1816). Magna Britannia. Vol. 4, Cumberland. London: T. Cadell & W. Davies. Retrieved 20 November 2014 – via British History Online.
- McEvoy, Sean (2008). Ben Jonson, Renaissance Dramatist. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2302-0.
- Mitchell, Deborah (1997). "Richard III: Tonypandy in the Twentieth Century". Literature/Film Quarterly. 25 (2): 133–145. JSTOR 43796785.
- Myers, A. R. (1968). "Richard III and Historical Tradition". JSTOR 24407008.
- Paget, Gerald (1977). The Lineage and Ancestry of H. R. H. Prince Charles, Prince of Wales. Vol. 1. Edinburgh: Charles Skilton.
- Penn, Thomas (2013). Winter King: Henry VII and The Dawn of Tudor England. New York: Simon & Schuster. OL 25011793M.
- ISBN 978-0-060-59719-1.
- ISBN 978-0-862-99660-4.
- —— (2000). The Wars of the Roses (2nd ed.). Basingstoke, England: Palgrave. OL 6794297M.
- —— (2004). "Edward [Edward of Middleham], prince of Wales". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/38659. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- —— (2008). "Yorkists". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/95580. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- Potter, Jeremy (1994) [1983]. Good King Richard? An Account of Richard III and his Reputation (paperback ed.). London: Constable.
- Rees, E. A. (2008). A Life of Guto'r Glyn. Tal-y-bont, Ceredigion, Wales: Y Lolfa. ISBN 978-0862439712.
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- ISBN 978-0904387438.
- Rowse, Alfred L. (1966). Bosworth Field and the Wars of the Roses. London: Macmillan.
- Scofield, Cora L. (2016) [1923]. The Life and Reign of Edward the Fourth: King of England and France and Lord of Ireland. Vol. 1. London: Fonthill Media. ISBN 978-1781554753.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-3004-4.
- Steer, Christian (2014). "The Plantagenet in the Parish: The Burial of Richard III's Daughter in Medieval London". The Ricardian. 24: 63–73.
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- Wilkinson, Josephine (2008). Richard the Young King to Be. Stroud, England: Amberley. ISBN 978-1-84868-083-8.
- Williams, Barrie (1983). "The Portuguese Connection and the Significance of 'the Holy Princess'" (PDF). The Ricardian. 6 (80): 138–145.
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Further reading
- Bowen, Marjorie (2014) [1st pub. 1929]. Dickon. Project Gutenberg Australia. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
- Carson, Annette (2009). Richard III: The Maligned King. Stroud, England: History Press. ISBN 978-0-752-45208-1.
- —— (2015). Richard Duke of Gloucester as Lord Protector and High Constable of England. Horstead, England: Imprimis Imprimatur. ISBN 978-0-957-68404-1.
- Dockray, Keith (1997). Richard III: A Sourcebook. Stroud, England: Sutton. ISBN 978-0-750-91479-6.
- ——; Hammond, Peter W. (2013). Richard III: From Contemporary Chronicles, Letters and Records (rev. ed.). Stroud, England: Fonthill Media. ISBN 978-1-781-55313-8.
- Drewett, Richard; Redhead, Mark (1984). The Trial of Richard III. Stroud, England: Sutton. ISBN 978-0-862-99198-2.
- England, Barbara, ed. (1986). Richard III and the North of England. University of Hull. ISBN 978-0-859-58031-1.
- Fields, Bertram (1998). Royal Blood: Richard III and the Mystery of the Princes. New York: HarperCollins. OL 7276841M.
- Greyfriars Research Team; ISBN 978-1-118-78314-6.
- Hammond, Peter W.; Sutton, Anne (1985). Richard III: The Road to Bosworth Field. London: Constable. ISBN 978-0-094-66160-8.
- Hancock, Peter A. (2011). Richard III and the Murder in the Tower (reprint ed.). Stroud, England: History Press. ISBN 978-0-752-45797-0.
- ISBN 978-1-620-40509-3.
- ISBN 978-0393003109.
- Lamb, V. B. (2015). The Betrayal of Richard III. Revised by Hammond, Peter W. Stroud, England: History Press. ISBN 978-0-750-96299-5.
- OL 6982482M.
- ISBN 978-0413368003.
- Seward, Desmond (1997). Richard III: England's Black Legend. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-140-26634-4.
- Sutton, Anne. "Richard III: His Parliament". Richard III Society. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
- ——; Hammond, Peter W. (1984). The Coronation of Richard III: The Extant Documents. New York: St Martin's. ISBN 978-0-312-16979-4.
- ——; Visser-Fuchs, Livia (1997). Richard III's Books. Stroud, England: Sutton. ISBN 978-0-750-91406-2.
- Watson, G. W. (1896). "The Seize Quartiers of the Kings and Queens of England". In H. W. Forsyth Harwood (ed.). The Genealogist. New Series. Vol. 12. Exeter: William Pollard & Co.
- ISBN 978-0-345-39178-0.
- Wood, Charles T. (1991). Joan of Arc and Richard III: Sex, Saints, and Government in the Middle Ages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-06951-8.
External links
- "Richard III" – via Official website of the British monarchy.
- "King Richard III Visitor Centre, Leicester".
- "The Richard III Society".
- "Information about the discovery of Richard III" – via University of Leicester.
- Portraits of King Richard III at the National Portrait Gallery, London
- Richard III of England at Curlie