Right-wing populism
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Right-wing populism, also called national populism and right-wing nationalism,
Right-wing populism in the Western world is generally associated with ideologies such as anti-environmentalism,[8] anti-globalization,[9][10] nativism,[9][11][12] and protectionism.[13] In Europe, the term is often used to describe groups, politicians, and political parties generally known for their opposition to immigration,[9][14] especially from the Muslim world,[9][15] and for Euroscepticism.[16] Right-wing populists may support expanding the welfare state, but only for those they deem fit to receive it;[17] this concept has been referred to as "welfare chauvinism".[18][19][20][21][22]
From the 1990s, right-wing populist parties became established in the legislatures of various democracies. Although
Since the
Definition
Right-wing populism is an ideology that primarily espouses neo-nationalism, social conservatism, and economic nationalism.[31]
Cas Mudde argues that two definitions can be given of the "populist radical right": a maximum and a minimum one, with the "maximum" group being a subgroup of the "minimum" group. The minimum definition describes what Michael Freeden has called the "core concept"[b] of the right-wing populist ideology, the concept shared by all parties generally included in the family. Looking at the primary literature, Mudde concludes that the core concept of right-populism "is undoubtedly the "nation". "This concept", he explains, "also certainly functions as a "coat-hanger" for most other ideological features. Consequently, the minimum definition of the party family should be based on the key concept, the nation". He however rejects the use of "nationalism" as a "core ideology" of right-wing populism on the ground that there are also purely "civic" or "liberal" forms of nationalism, preferring instead the term "nativism": a xenophobic form of nationalism asserting that "states should be inhabited exclusively by members of the native group ("the nation"), and that non-native elements (persons and ideas) are fundamentally threatening to the homogeneous nation-state".
Mudde further argues that "while nativism could include racist arguments, it can also be non-racist (including and excluding on the basis of culture or even religion)", and that the term nativism does not reduce the parties to mere single-issue parties, such as the term "anti-immigrant" does. In the maximum definition, to nativism is added authoritarianism—an attitude, not necessary anti-democratic or automatic, to prefer "law and order" and the submission to authority[c]—and populism—a "thin-centered ideology that considers society to be ultimately separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups, "the pure people" versus "the corrupt elite", and which argues that politics should be an expression of the "general will of the people", if needed before human rights or constitutional guarantees.[d][32] Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser reiterated in 2017 that within European right-wing populism, there is a "marriage of convenience" of populism based on an "ethnic and chauvinistic definition of the people", authoritarianism, and nativism. This results in right-wing populism having a "xenophobic nature".[33]
Roger Eatwell, Emeritus Professor of Comparative Politics at the University of Bath, writes that "whilst populism and fascism differ notably ideologically, in practice the latter has borrowed aspects of populist discourse and style, and populism can degenerate into leader-oriented authoritarian and exclusionary politics."[34] For populism to transition into fascism or proto-fascism, it requires a "nihilistic culture and an intractable crisis."[35]
[P]opulism is like fascism in being a response to liberal and socialist explanations of the political. And also like fascism, populism does not recognize a legitimate political place for an opposition that it regards as acting against the desires of the people and that it also accuses of being tyrannical, conspiratorial, and antidemocratic. ... The opponents are turned into public enemies, but only rhetorically. If populism moves from rhetorical enmity to practices of enemy identification and persecution, we could be talking about its transformation into fascism or another form of dictatorial repression. This has happened in the past ... and without question it could happen in the future. This morphing of populism back into fascism is always a possibility, but it is very uncommon, and when it does happen, and populism becomes fully antidemocratic, it is no longer populism.[36]
Erik Berggren and Andres Neergard wrote in 2015 that "[m]ost researchers agree [...] that
Scholars use terminology inconsistently, sometimes referring to right-wing populism as "
In regard to the authoritarian aspect of right-wing populism, political psychologist Shawn W. Rosenberg asserts that its "intellectual roots and underlying logic" are best seen as "a contemporary expression of the fascist ideologies of the early 20th century".
Guided by its roots in ideological fascism ... and its affinity to the fascist governments of 1930s Germany and Italy, [right-wing populism] tends to delegate unusual power to its leadership, more specifically its key leader. This leader embodies the will of the people, renders it clear for everyone else and executes accordingly. Thus distinctions between the leadership, the people as a whole and individuals are blurred as their will is joined in a single purpose. (p.5) ... In this political cultural conception, individuals have a secondary and somewhat derivative status. They are rendered meaningful and valued insofar as they are part of the collective, the people and the nation. Individuals are thus constituted as a mass who share a single common significant categorical quality – they are nationals, members of the nation. ... In this conception, the individual and the nation are inextricably intertwined, the line between them blurred. As suggested by philosophers of fascism ... the state is realized in the people and the people are realized in the state. It is a symbiotic relation. Individuals are realized in their manifestation of the national characteristics and by their participation in the national mission. In so doing, individuals are at once defined and valued, recognized and glorified. (p.12)[44]
According to Rosenberg, right-wing populism accepts the primacy of "the people", but rejects liberal democracy's protection of the rights of minorities, and favors ethno-nationalism over the legal concept of the nation as a polity, with the people as its members; in general, it rejects the rule of law. All of these attributes, as well as its favoring of strong political leadership, suggest right-wing populism's fascist leanings.[45] However, historian Federico Finchelstein in From Fascism to Populism in History states that "Properly historicized, populism is not fascism."
Motivations and methods
According to Roger Eatwell and Matthew Goodwin, "National populists prioritize the culture and interests of the nation, and promise to give voice to a people who feel that they have been neglected, even held in contempt, by distant and often corrupt elites." They are part of a "growing revolt against mainstream politics and liberal values. This challenge is in general not anti-democratic. Rather, national populists are opposed to certain aspects of liberal democracy as it has evolved in the West. [...] [Their] 'direct' conception of democracy differs from the 'liberal' one that has flourished across the West following the defeat of fascism and which has gradually become more elitist in character." Furthermore, national populists question what they call the "erosion of the nation-state", "hyper ethnic change" and the "capacity to rapidly absorb [high] rates of immigration", the "highly unequal societies" of the West's current economic settlement. They are suspicious of "cosmopolitan and globalizing agendas".[3] Populist parties use crises in their domestic governments to enhance anti-globalist reactions; these include refrainment towards trade and anti-immigration policies. The support for these ideologies commonly comes from people whose employment might have low occupational mobility. This makes them more likely to develop an anti-immigrant and anti-globalization mentality that aligns with the ideals of the populist party.[46]
Jean-Yves Camus and Nicolas Lebourg see "national populism" as an attempt to combine the socio-economical values of the left and political values of the right and the support for a referendary republic that would bypass traditional political divisions and institutions as they aim for the unity of the political (the demos), ethnic (the ethnos) and social (the working class) interpretations of the "people", national populists claim to defend the "average citizen" and "common sense", against the "betrayal of inevitably corrupt elites".[47] As Front National ideologue François Duprat put in the 1970s, inspired by the Latin American right of that time, right-populism aims to constitute a "national, social, and popular" ideology. If both left and right parties share populism itself, their premises are indeed different in that right-wing populists perceive society as in a state of decadence, from which "only the healthy common people can free the nation by forming one national class from the different social classes and casting aside the corrupt elites".[48]
Methodologically, by co-opting concepts from the left – such as multiculturalism and ethnopluralism, which is espoused by the left as a means of preserving minority ethnic cultures within a pluralistic society – and then jettisoning their non-hierarchical essence, right-wing populists can, in the words of sociologist Jens Rydgren, "mobilize on xenophobic and racist public opinions without being stigmatized as racists."[49] Sociologist Hande Eslen-Ziya argues that right-wing populist movements rely on "troll science", namely "(distorted) scientific arguments moulded into populist discourse" that creates an alternative narrative.[50] In addition to rhetorical methods, right-wing populist movements have also flourished by using tools of digital media, including websites and newsletters, social media groups and pages, as well as Youtube channels and messaging chat groups.[51][52][53]
Cultural issues and immigration
While immigration is a common theme at the center of many national right-wing populist movements, the theme often crystallizes around cultural issues, such as religion, gender roles, and sexuality, as is the case with the transnational anti-gender theory movements.[53][54] A body of scholarship has also found populist movements to employ or be based around conspiracy theories, rumors, and falsehoods.[55][56][57] Some scholars argue that right-wing populism's association with conspiracy, rumor and falsehood may be more common in the digital era thanks to widely accessible means of content production and diffusion.[58] These media and communication developments in the context of specific historical shifts in immigration and cultural politics have led to the association of right-wing populism with post-truth politics.[53]
History
Germany and France (1870–1900)
German and French right-wing populism can be traced back to the period 1870–1900 in the aftermath of the
Denmark and Norway (1970s)
Modern national populism—what Pierro Ignazi called "post-industrial parties"[62]—emerged in the 1970s, in a dynamic sustained by voters' rejection of the welfare state and of the tax system, both deemed "confiscatory"; the rise of xenophobia against the backdrop of immigration which, because originating from outside Europe, was considered to be of a new kind; and finally, the end of the prosperity that had reigned since the post–World War II era, symbolized by the oil crisis of 1973. Two precursor parties consequently appeared in the early 1970s: the Progress Party, the ancestor of the Danish People's Party, and Anders Lange's Party in Norway.[47]
Netherlands and France (2001)
A new wave of right-wing populism arose after the
Movements by country
Right-wing populist parties in the English-speaking world include the
include right-wing populist factions.Americas
Argentina
Economically, Milei is influenced by the
Brazil
In Brazil, right-wing populism began to rise roughly around the time Dilma Rousseff won the 2014 presidential election.[95] In the Brazilian general election of 2014, Levy Fidelix, from the Brazilian Labour Renewal Party,[96] presented himself with a conservative speech and, according to him, the only right-wing candidate. He spoke for traditional family values and opposed abortion, legalization of marijuana, and same-sex marriage and proposed that homosexual individuals be treated far away from the good citizens' and workers' families.[97] In the first round of the general election, Fidelix received 446,878 votes, representing 0.43% of the popular vote.[98] Fidelix ranked 7th out of 11 candidates. In the second round, Fidelix supported candidate Aécio Neves.[99]
In addition, according to the political analyst of the Inter-Union Department of Parliamentary Advice, Antônio Augusto de Queiroz, the
Centrist interim President
In March 2016, after entering the
Canada
Canada has a history of right-wing populist protest parties and politicians, most notably in Western Canada, partly due to the idea of Western alienation. The highly successful Social Credit Party of Canada consistently won seats in British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan but fell into obscurity by the 1970s.
In the late 1980s, the
In recent years, right-wing populist elements have existed within the Conservative Party of Canada and mainstream provincial parties and have most notably been espoused by Ontario MP
In August 2018, Conservative MP Maxime Bernier left the party, and the following month he founded the People's Party of Canada, which has self-described as "smart populism" and been described as a "right of centre, populist" movement.[118] Bernier lost his seat in the 2019 Canadian elections, and the People's Party scored just above 1% of the vote; however, in the 2021 election, it saw improved performance and climbed to nearly 5% of the popular vote.[119]
Pierre Poilievre, who has been described as populist by some journalists,[120][121] won the 2022 Conservative Party of Canada leadership election and became the leader of both the Conservative Party and the Official Opposition. Some journalists have compared Poilievre to American Republican populists such as Donald Trump and Ted Cruz,[121] however many journalists have dismissed these comparisons due to Poilievre's pro-choice, pro-immigration, and pro-same-sex-marriage positions.[122][123][124][125][126][127][128][129]
Costa Rica
In the
were described as examples of right-wing populists.United States
This section needs to be updated.(October 2021) |
In the United States, right-wing populism is frequently aligned with
Moore (1996) argues that "populist opposition to the growing power of political, economic, and cultural elites" helped shape "conservative and right-wing movements" since the 1920s.
Several of the prominent members of the
In 2010, Rasmussen and Schoen characterized the
Asia-Pacific countries
Australia
Right-wing populism has also been represented by
Furthermore, the main center-right party the Coalition has certain members belonging to the right-wing populist faction known as National Right including the current opposition leader Peter Dutton.[158]
China
Japan
Netto-uyoku, Zaitokukai, and the Japan First Party are evaluated as similar to Western far-right populism and the alt-right movement.[160]
New Zealand
Right-wing populism is thought to have emerged in New Zealand with Robert Muldoon, the New Zealand National Party prime minister from 1975 to 1984. A economic nationalist and social conservative, Muldoon has been cited as having appealed to the masses through his animosity towards the media and leftists and his own abrasive and colourful public persona.[161] He also often made rude or unusually frank comments about foreign leaders, including American president Jimmy Carter and Australian prime minister Malcolm Fraser,[161] whom he ridiculed and even bullied.[162]
Pakistan
In Pakistan, Pakistan Tehreek Insaaf (PTI) has recently been described as centrist-populist while sharing some characteristics with right-wing populists.[163] Its leader Imran Khan has furiously attacked traditional politicians and made people believe that only he has the solutions.[163] British journalist Ben Judah, in an interview, compared Imran Khan with Donald Trump on his populist rhetoric.[164]
South Korea
Conservatism in South Korea has traditionally been more inclined toward elitism than populism. However, since the 2016 South Korean political scandal, Korean conservative forces have changed their political lines to populism as the distrust of the elite spread among the Korean public.[165]
South Korean right-wing circles insist that
Taiwan
European countries
In 2016, Senior European Union diplomats cited growing anxiety in Europe about Russian financial support for
Austria
The Austrian
From 1980, the Freedom Party adopted a more moderate stance. Upon the 1983 federal election, it entered a coalition government with the Socialist Party, whereby party chairman Norbert Steger served as Vice-Chancellor. The liberal interlude, however, ended when Jörg Haider was elected chairman in 1986. Haider re-integrated the party's nationalist base voters through his down-to-earth manners and patriotic attitude. Nevertheless, he also obtained votes from large sections of the population disenchanted with politics by publicly denouncing the corruption and nepotism of the Austrian Proporz system. The electoral success was boosted by Austria's accession to the European Union in 1995.
Upon the 1999 federal election, the Freedom Party (FPÖ), with 26.9% of the votes cast, became the second strongest party in the National Council parliament. Having entered a coalition government with the People's Party, Haider had to face the disability of several FPÖ ministers and the impossibility of agitation against members of his cabinet. In 2005, he finally countered the FPÖ's loss of reputation with the Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ) relaunch to carry on his government. The remaining FPÖ members elected Heinz-Christian Strache chairman, but since the 2006 federal election, both right-wing parties have run separately. After Haider was killed in a car accident in 2008, the BZÖ lost a measurable amount of support.
The FPÖ regained much of its support in subsequent elections. Its candidate Norbert Hofer made it into the runoff in the 2016 presidential election, though he narrowly lost the election. After the 2017 legislative elections, the FPÖ formed a government coalition with the Austrian People's Party but lost seats in 2019.
Belgium
Vlaams Blok, established in 1978, operated on a platform of law and order, anti-immigration (with a particular focus on Islamic immigration), and secession of the Flanders region of the country. The secession was originally planned to end in the annexation of Flanders by the culturally and linguistically similar Netherlands until the plan was abandoned due to the multiculturalism in that country. In the elections to the Flemish Parliament in June 2004, the party received 24.2% of the vote, within less than 2% of being the largest party.[178] However, in November of the same year, the party was ruled illegal under the country's anti-racism law for, among other things, advocating segregated schools for citizens and immigrants.[179]
In less than a week, the party was re-established under the name
The Flemish nationalist and
In the French-speaking
As of the 2019 federal, regional, and European elections, Vlaams Belang (VB) has surged from 248,843 votes in 2014 to 783,977 on 26 May 2019.[186]
Bulgaria
There are several right-wing populist parties in Bulgaria, including
Following the 2021 Bulgarian general election, another right-wing populist party, Revival, entered Parliament, while IMRO-BNM, NFSB, Attack, and Volya failed to win any seats.
Cyprus
The ELAM was formed in 2008.[187] Its platform includes advocating for Unification with Greece, opposition to further European integration, immigration, and the status quo that remains due to Turkey's invasion of a third of the island (and the international community's lack of intention to solve the issue).[citation needed]
Denmark
In the early 1970s, the home of the strongest right-wing populist party in Europe was in Denmark, the
Finland
In Finland, the main right-wing party is the
France
Gaullism is considered part of (right-wing) populism because it is based on charisma, popular mobilization, French nationalism, and exceptionalism. Gaullism is deeply embedded in modern right-wing politics in France.[196][197]
France's
Right-wing populism in France has also congealed around cultural issues such as the anti-gay marriage and anti-gender theory movements exemplified by La Manif Pour Tous.[53]
Germany
Since 2013, the most popular right-wing populist party in Germany has been
Right-wing populist movements like Pro NRW and Citizens in Rage (Bürger in Wut, BIW) sporadically attract some support. In 1989, The Republicans (Die Republikaner), led by Franz Schönhuber, entered the Abgeordnetenhaus of Berlin and achieved more than 7% of the German votes cast in the 1989 European election, with six seats in the European Parliament. The party also won seats in the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg twice in 1992 and 1996. However, after 2000 the Republicans' support eroded in favor of the far-right German People's Union and the Neo-Nazi National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD), which in the 2009 federal election held 1.5% of the popular vote (winning up to 9% in regional Landtag parliamentary elections).
In 2005, a nationwide
Greece
The most prominent right-wing populist party in Greece is the Independent Greeks (ANEL).[200][201] Despite being smaller than the more extreme Golden Dawn party, after the January 2015 legislative elections, ANEL formed a governing coalition with the left-wing Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA), thus making the party a governing party and giving it a place in the Cabinet of Alexis Tsipras.[202]
The Neo-Nazi Golden Dawn has grown significantly in Greece during the economic downturn, gaining 7% of the vote and 18 out of 300 seats in the Hellenic Parliament. The party's ideology includes annexing territory in Albania and Turkey, including the Turkish cities of Istanbul and İzmir.[203] Controversial measures by the party included a poor people's kitchen in Athens, which only supplied Greek citizens and was shut down by the police.[204]
The
The
Hungary
The 2018 Hungarian parliamentary election result was a victory for the Fidesz–KDNP alliance, preserving its two-thirds majority, with Viktor Orbán remaining prime minister. Orbán and Fidesz campaigned primarily on the issues of immigration and foreign meddling, and the election was seen as a victory for right-wing populism in Europe.[citation needed]
Italy
In
With the rise of immigration into Italy since the late 1990s, LN has increasingly turned its attention to criticizing mass immigration to Italy. The LN, which also opposes illegal immigration, is critical of Islam and proposes Italy's exit from the Eurozone and is considered a Eurosceptic movement and, as such, is a part of the Identity and Democracy(ID) group in the European Parliament. LN was or is part of the national government in 1994, 2001–2006, 2008–2011, and 2018–2019. Most recently, the party, including among its members the Presidents of Lombardy and Veneto, won 17.4% of the vote in the 2018 general election, becoming the third-largest party in Italy (largest within the centre-right coalition). In the 2014 European election, under the leadership of Matteo Salvini, it took 6.2% of votes. Under Salvini, the party has, to some extent, embraced Italian nationalism and emphasized Euroscepticism, opposition to immigration, and other "populist" policies while allying with right-wing populist parties in Europe.[217][218][219]
Silvio Berlusconi, leader of Forza Italia and Prime Minister of Italy from 1994 to 1995, 2001–2006, and 2008–2011, has sometimes been described as a right-wing populist, although his party is not typically described as such.[220][221]
Between the late 2010s and the early 2020s, another right-wing populist movement emerged within the centre-right coalition. The nationalist and national-conservative Brothers of Italy (FdI), led by Giorgia Meloni, gained 4.4% of votes in the 2018 election and, four years later, it became the most voted party in the 2022 general election, gaining 26% of votes. Meloni was appointed prime minister on 22 October, at the head of what it was considered as the most rightist Italian government since 1945.[222][223]
Some national conservative, nationalist, and arguably right-wing populist parties are strong, especially in Lazio, the region around Rome, and Southern Italy. Most of them originated due to the Italian Social Movement (a national-conservative party whose best result was 8.7% of the vote in the 1972 general election) and its successor National Alliance (which reached 15.7% of the vote in the 1996 general election). In addition to Brothers of Italy, they include New Force (0.3%), CasaPound (0.1%), Tricolour Flame (0.1%), Social Idea Movement (0.01%) and Progetto Nazionale (0.01%).
Additionally, in the German-speaking South Tyrol, the local second-largest party, Die Freiheitlichen, is often described as a right-wing populist party.
Netherlands
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. (February 2017) |
In the Netherlands, right-wing populism was represented in the 150-seat House of Representatives in 1982 when the Centre Party won a single seat. During the 1990s, a splinter party, the Centre Democrats, was slightly more successful, although its significance was still marginal. Not before 2002 did a right-wing populist party break through in the Netherlands, when the Pim Fortuyn List (LPF) won 26 seats and subsequently formed a coalition with the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) and People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD). Fortuyn, who had strong views against immigration, particularly by Muslims, was assassinated in May 2002, two weeks before the election. Ideologically, the LPF differed somewhat from other European right-wing populist movements by holding more liberal stances on certain social issues such as abortion, gay rights, and euthanasia (Fortuyn himself was openly gay) while maintaining an uncompromising stance on immigration, law and order, and the European Union. Fortuyn was also credited with shifting the Dutch political landscape by bringing the topics of multiculturalism, immigration, and the integration of immigrants into the political mainstream.[224] However, the coalition had broken up by 2003, and the LPF went into steep decline until it was dissolved.
Since 2006, the Party for Freedom (PVV) has been represented in the House of Representatives and described as inheriting the mantle of the Pim Fortuyn List. Following the 2010 general election, it has been in a pact with the right-wing minority government of CDA and VVD after it won 24 seats in the House of Representatives. The party is Eurosceptic and plays a leading role in the changing stance of the Dutch government towards European integration as they came second in the 2009 European Parliament election, winning 4 out of 25 seats. The party's main program revolves around strong criticism of Islam, restrictions on migration from new European Union countries and Islamic countries, pushing for cultural assimilation of migrants into Dutch society, opposing the accession of Turkey to the European Union, advocating for the Netherlands to withdraw from the European Union and advocating for a return to the guilder and abandoning the euro.[225]
The PVV withdrew its support for the First Rutte cabinet in 2012 after refusing to support austerity measures. This triggered the 2012 general election in which the PVV was reduced to 15 seats and excluded from the new government.
In the 2017 Dutch general election, Wilders' PVV gained an extra five seats to become the second largest party in the Dutch House of Representatives, bringing their total to 20 seats.[226]
From 2017 onwards, the
The Farmer–Citizen Movement, described as a right-wing populist party,[229] won the 2023 Dutch provincial elections, winning the popular vote and receiving the most seats in all twelve provinces.[230][231] The party has been supported by local pundits such as Eva Vlaardingerbroek.[232][233]
Poland
The largest right-wing populist party in Poland is
Polish
Romania
The
Spain
In Spain, the appearance of right-wing populism began to gain strength after the December 2018 election for the Parliament of Andalusia, in which the right-wing populist party VOX managed to obtain 12 seats[242] and agreed to support a coalition government of the parties of the right People's Party and Citizens, even though the Socialist Party won the elections.[243] VOX, which has been frequently described as far-right, both by the left parties and by Spanish or international press,[244][245] promotes characteristic policies of the populist right,[246] such as the expulsion of all illegal immigrants from the country -even of legal immigrants who commit crimes-, a generalized criminal tightening, combined with traditional claims of right-wing conservatives, such as the centralization of the State and the suppression of the Autonomous Communities, and has harshly criticized the laws against gender violence, approved by the socialist government of José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, but later maintained by the PP executive of Mariano Rajoy, accusing the people and institutions that defend them of applying "gender totalitarianism".[247]
Party official Javier Ortega Smith is being investigated for alleged hate speech after Spanish prosecutors admitted a complaint by an Islamic association in connection with a rally that talked about "the Islamist invasion".[248] The party election manifesto that was finally published merged classic far-right-inspired policies with right-libertarianism in tax and social security matters.
After months of political uncertainty and protests against the party in
Madrilenian president Isabel Díaz Ayuso, despite being a member of the centre-right People's Party, has been sustained in government by VOX and adopted many policies championed by the party.[254] She has embraced populist rhetoric,[255] defended Spanish imperialism,[256] dismissed climate change,[257] and opposed Covid-19 lockdowns.[258] She has been to compared to Donald Trump by several of her critics.[259][260]
Sweden
In Sweden, the first openly populist movement to be represented in the Riksdag (Swedish parliament), New Democracy was founded in 1994 by businessman Bert Karlsson and aristocrat Ian Wachtmeister. Although New Democracy promoted economic issues as its foremost concern, it also advocated restrictions on immigration and welfare chauvinism. The party saw a sharp rise in support in 1994 before declining soon after.[261][262]
In 2010, the Sweden Democrats entered parliament for the first time. The Sweden Democrats originally had connections to white nationalism during its early days but later began expelling hardline members and moderated its platform to transform itself into a more mainstream movement. The party calls for more robust immigration and asylum policies, compulsory measures to assimilate immigrants into Swedish society, and stricter law and order policies. The Sweden Democrats are currently the second largest party in Sweden, with 20.5% of the popular vote in the 2022 Swedish general election, and the second most seats in the Swedish parliament with 72 seats.[188][263]
Switzerland
In Switzerland, the right-wing populist Swiss People's Party (SVP) reached an all-time high in the 2015 elections. The party is mainly considered national conservative,[264][265] but it has also variously been identified as "extreme right"[266] and "radical right-wing populist",[267] reflecting a spectrum of ideologies among its members. Its far-right wing includes members such as Ulrich Schlüer and Pascal Junod, who heads a New Right study group and has been linked to Holocaust denial and neo-Nazism.[268][269]
In Switzerland, radical right populist parties held close to 10% of the popular vote in 1971, were reduced to below 2% by 1979, and grew to more than 10% in 1991. Since 1991, these parties (the
Turkey
The Justice and Development Party (AKP) and its leader Recep Tayyip Erdoğan have been in power since 2002.
The Victory Party is a patriotic and Kemalist political party in Turkey founded on August 26, 2021, under the leadership of Ümit Özdağ. It is represented in the Grand National Assembly of Turkey by two deputies. The party is the continuation of the Ayyıldız Movement initiated by Ümit Özdağ, the founding petition of the party was submitted to the Ministry of the Interior on 26 August 2021, and then the party was officially established. The party leader Özdağ and his deputies aim to re-institute Kemalist and Turkish nationalist ideologies in the government and aim to send back refugees to their homelands.
United Kingdom
The Scholarly authors Breeze, Bale, Ashkenas and Aisch, and Clarke et al. characterised the
The role of UKIP in the UK underwent a rapid transformation post-Brexit, with Nigel Farage leading the initiative to establish
In the Conservative Party,
Ingle and Swanson, et al. consider the Northern Ireland Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) to be a right-wing populist party.[302][303]
Right-wing populist political parties
Current right-wing populist parties or parties with right-wing populist factions
Represented in national legislatures
- Argentina – La Libertad Avanza[304][305][306]
- Australia – Liberal–National Coalition (Factions including National Right),[307] Pauline Hanson's One Nation,[308] United Australia Party,
- Austria – Freedom Party of Austria,[309] Austrian People's Party (factions)[310]
- Belgium – Vlaams Belang[311]
- Brazil – Liberal Party (factions), Democratic Renewal Party
- Bulgaria – Revival[312]
- Canada – Conservative Party[313][314][315][316][317]
- Chile – Republican Party[318]
- Costa Rica – National Restoration Party, New Republic Party, National Integration Party[319][320][321][322]
- Croatia – Homeland Movement[323][324]
- Cyprus – ELAM,[325] Solidarity Movement
- Czech Republic – Freedom and Direct Democracy[326]
- Denmark – Danish People's Party,[327][309][328] New Right, Denmark Democrats
- Estonia – Conservative People's Party of Estonia[329][327]
- European Union – Identity and Democracy Party, European Conservatives and Reformists Party, European People's Party (factions)
- Finland – Finns Party[309][327]
- France –
- Germany – Alternative for Germany[327][309]
- Greece – Greek Solution,[331] New Democracy (factions)[332]
- Hungary – Fidesz,[309] Our Homeland Movement[327][333]
- India – Bharatiya Janata Party,[334] Shiv Sena[335]
- Indonesia – Great Indonesia Movement Party,[336] Prosperous Justice Party
- Italy – League,[309][337] Brothers of Italy,[327] Five Star Movement (factions),[327] Forza Italia (factions)[338]
- Israel – Likud (factions),[339][340] Yamina,[341][342][343] Religious Zionist Party, Otzma Yehudit
- Japan – Liberal Democratic Party,[344][345] Nippon Ishin no Kai,[346][347] Kibō no Tō[348]
- Latvia – National Alliance,[349][327] Latvia First
- Liechtenstein – Democrats for Liechtenstein[350]
- Luxembourg – Alternative Democratic Reform Party[351]
- Netherlands –
- New Zealand – ACT New Zealand, New Zealand First[356]
- North Macedonia – VMRO-DPMNE[357]
- Norway – Progress Party[358]
- Paraguay – National Union of Ethical Citizens[359]
- Peru – Popular Renewal[360]
- Philippines – Nacionalista Party
- Poland – KORWiN,[361] National Movement)
- Portugal – Chega[362]
- Romania – Alliance for the Union of Romanians,[240] Romanian Nationhood Party
- Russia – United Russia (factions),[363] Liberal Democratic Party of Russia,[364] Rodina[365]
- Serbia – United Serbia,[366] Dveri,[367] Serbian People's Party[368]
- Slovakia – Slovak National Party
- Slovenia – Slovenian Democratic Party
- South Africa – Freedom Front Plus[369]
- South Korea – People Power Party
- Spain – Vox[370]
- Sweden – Sweden Democrats[309][327]
- Switzerland – Swiss People's Party,[371] Geneva Citizens' Movement,[372][373] Ticino League[374]
- Taiwan – Kuomintang (factions),[172][173] New party
- Thailand – Pheu Thai Party (faction), United Thai Nation Party
- Turkey – Justice and Development Party,[375] Nationalist Movement Party,[376][377] New Welfare Party, Free Cause Party
- Ukraine – Svoboda[378][379]
- United Kingdom – Conservative Party (faction: Blue Collar Conservatives), Reform UK, Democratic Unionist Party[302][303]
- United States – Republican Party[380][381][382] (faction: Freedom Caucus)[383]
- Uruguay – Open Cabildo
Not represented in national legislatures
- Albania – Red and Black Alliance,[384] Albanian National Front Party
- Australia – Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party, Australian Protectionist Party
- Austria – Alliance for the Future of Austria,[385] Free Party Salzburg
- Belgium – Libertair, Direct, Democratisch,[386][387] People's Party[388] VLOTT
- Botswana – Botswana Movement for Democracy[389]
- Brazil – Alliance for Brazil, Brazilian Labour Renewal Party
- Bulgaria – Volya
- Canada – National Advancement Party of Canada
- Chile – National Force
- Croatia – Croatian Party of Rights Dr. Ante Starčević, Independents for Croatia
- Czech Republic – Law, Respect, Expertise, Workers' Party of Social Justice[392]
- Denmark – Hard Line
- Finland – Blue Reform
- France – Alsace First
- Germany – National Democratic Party of Germany,[394] Citizens' Movement Pro Chemnitz,[395][396] German Social Union, The Republicans
- Greece –
- Iceland – Icelandic National Front
- India – Maharashtra Navnirman Sena, Hindu Mahasabha[400]
- Ireland – National Party, Irish Freedom Party
- Israel – Zehut
- Italy – Tricolour Flame, Die Freiheitlichen,[401] Citizens' Union for South Tyrol,[402][403] South Tyrolean Freedom[404]
- Latvia – For a Humane Latvia,[405] Platform 21[406][407]
- Liechtenstein – The Independents
- Lithuania – National Alliance, Christian Union, Young Lithuania, Order and Justice[327][408]
- Malta – Moviment Patrijotti Maltin
- Montenegro – Party of Serb Radicals, True Montenegro, Serb List
- Netherlands – Forza! Nederland
- New Zealand –
- Poland – Kukiz'15, Congress of the New Right,[361] Real Politics Union
- Portugal – National Renovator Party
- Romania – M10
- Serbia – Serbian Radical Party,[410][411][412] Dveri,[413] Hungarian Hope Movement, Enough is Enough, New Serbia, People's Freedom Movement, Leviathan Movement, Serbian Right, Love, Faith, Hope, Serbian Party Oathkeepers, Healthy Serbia
- Slovakia – Republic, We Are Family,[414] People's Party Our Slovakia[415][416]
- South Korea – Dawn of Liberty
- Sweden – Alternative for Sweden
- Switzerland – Federal Democratic Union of Switzerland, Freedom Party of Switzerland, Swiss Democrats
- Transnistria – Obnovlenie
- Ukraine – Congress of Ukrainian Nationalists
- United Kingdom –
- United States – Constitution Party
Former or disbanded right-wing populist parties
- Austria – Team Stronach[385]
- Belgium – National Front, Vlaams Blok, People's Party
- Canada – Union Nationale (Quebec),[420] Ralliement national,[421] Action démocratique du Québec,[422] Reform Party of Canada,[423] Canadian Alliance,[424] Social Credit Party,[425] British Columbia Social Credit Party[426]
- Cyprus – New Horizons[427][428]
- Croatia – Croatian Democratic Alliance of Slavonia and Baranja, Croatian Democratic Union (factions)[429]
- Czech Republic – Dawn - National Coalition[431]
- Denmark – Progress Party[432]
- Germany – Citizens' Movement Pro Cologne,[433] German Freedom Party,[434] German People's Union, Pro Germany Citizens' Movement,[435][436] Pro NRW,[437] German National People's Party
- European Union – Movement for a Europe of Liberties and Democracy[401]
- Iceland – Citizens' Party[438]
- India – Bharatiya Jana Sangh (Succeeded by Bharatiya Janata Party)
- Italy – National Alliance[439]
- Japan – Japan Restoration Party[440][441][442]
- Netherlands – Centre Democrats,[443] Pim Fortuyn List[311][443][444]
- Portugal – Portugal Pro-Life
- Serbia – Serbian Patriotic Alliance,[445]
- South Korea – Democratic Republican Party, Liberty Korea Party,[446] Onward for Future 4.0
- Spain – Platform for Catalonia[447]
- Sweden – New Democracy[438]
- Switzerland – Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents, Republican Movement
- Syria – Arab Liberation Movement
- Thailand – Thai Rak Thai Party
- United Kingdom – National Democrats
See also
- Alt-right
- Berlusconism
- Brexit
- Counter-Enlightenment
- Christian right
- Criticism of multiculturalism
- Dark Enlightenment
- Economic nationalism
- Fascism
- Gaullism
- Hindutva
- Left-wing nationalism
- Left-wing populism
- Morenazi
- National conservatism
- National liberalism
- Nationalism
- Nativism (politics)
- Opposition to immigration
- Paternalistic conservatism
- Putinism
- Protectionism
- Racism
- Reactionary
- Revisionist Zionism
- Right-wing authoritarianism
- Right-wing antiscience
- Right-wing terrorism
- Rashism
- Social conservatism
- Thatcherism
- Traditionalism
- Trumpism
- White backlash
- Xenophobia
- Bolsonarism
Notes
- Islamic world are based on Islamic fundamentalism, some of which reject Western ideologies, including nationalism.
- ^ Freeden has developed in 1996 the idea that every ideology has "core" and "peripheral" concepts. Building on his work, Terance Ball (1999) has given the following definition: "A core concept is one that is both central to, and constitutive of, a particular ideology and therefore of the ideological community to which it gives inspiration and identity. For example, the concept of 'class' (and of course 'class struggle') is a key or core concept in Marxism, as 'gender' is in feminism, and 'liberty' (or 'individual liberty') is in liberalism, and so on through the list of leading ideologies."
- ^ Mudde: authoritarianism "is the belief in a strictly ordered society, in which infringements of authority are to be punished severely. In this interpretation, [it] includes law and order and "punitive conventional moralism". It does not necessarily mean an anti-democratic attitude, but neither does it preclude one. In addition, the authoritarian's submission to authority, established or not, is "not absolute, automatic, nor blind". In other words, while authoritarians will be more inclined to accept (established) authority than non-authoritarians, they can and will rebel under certain circumstances."
- ^ "Maximal" right-wing populists here give a preference for the état légal—which gives primacy to the law as expressed by the general will via election or referendum; against the Rechtsstaat—which limits the power of the democratic state (the majority) to protect the rights of minorities.
- ^ Neo-populists, contrary to the Marxist worldview, do not oppose the "working class" to the "bourgeoisie" and capitalists, but rather the "people" to the "elites" and immigrants.
- ^ Thurmond was a segregationist from South Carolina and began as member of the Democratic Party, but in 1964 switched to becoming a member of the Republican Party for the rest of his life until his death in 2003.
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Further reading
- Goldwag, Arthur. ISBN 978-0-307-37969-6.
- Ware, Alan (1996). Political Parties and Party Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-878076-2.
- Wodak, Ruth. The politics of fear: What right-wing populist discourses mean. London: Sage, 2015. ISBN 978-1-4462-4700-6.
- Wodak, Ruth, Brigitte Mral and Majid Khosravinik, editors. Right wing populism in Europe: politics and discourse. London. Bloomsbury Academic. 2013. ISBN 978-1-78093-245-3.
External links
- Media related to Right-wing populism at Wikimedia Commons
- "Fact check: The rise of right-wing populism in Europe". Channel 4 News (UK). 28 September 2017.