Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |
Social structure |
Court and aristocracy |
---|
Ethnoreligious communities |
Rise of nationalism |
Classes |
The rise of the Western notion of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire[1] eventually caused the breakdown of the Ottoman millet system. The concept of nationhood, which was different from the preceding religious community concept of the millet system, was a key factor in the decline of the Ottoman Empire.
Background
In the Ottoman Empire, the Islamic faith was the official religion, with members holding all rights, as opposed to Non-Muslims, who were restricted.[2] Non-Muslim (dhimmi) ethno-religious[3] legal groups were identified as different millets, which means "nations".[2]
Ideas of nationalism emerged in Europe in the 19th century at a time when most of the Balkans were still under Ottoman rule. The Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire, starting with Serbs and Greeks, but later spreading to Montenegrins and Bulgarians, began to demand autonomy in a series of armed revolts beginning with the Serbian Revolution (1804–17) and the Greek War of Independence (1821–29),[1] which established the Principality of Serbia and Hellenic Republic.[4] The first revolt in the Ottoman Empire fought under a nationalist ideology was the Serbian Revolution.[5] Later the Principality of Montenegro was established through the Montenegrin secularization and the Battle of Grahovac. The Principality of Bulgaria was established through the process of the Bulgarian National Revival, and the subsequent National awakening of Bulgaria, establishment of the Bulgarian Exarchate, the April Uprising of 1876, and the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878).
The radical elements of the Young Turk movement in the early 20th century had grown disillusioned with what they perceived to be the failures of 19th-century Ottoman reformers,[1] who had not managed to stop the advance of European expansionism or the spread of nationalist movements in the Balkans. These sentiments were shared by the Kemalists. These groups decided to abandon the idea of Ittihad-i anasır ("Unity of the Ethnic Elements") that had been a fundamental principle of the reform generation, and take up instead the mantle of Turkish nationalism.[6]
Michael Hechter argues that the rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire was the result of a backlash against Ottoman attempts to institute more direct and central forms of rule over populations which had previously had greater autonomy.[7]
Albanians
Arabs
Arab nationalism is a
A sentiment of Arab tribal solidarity (
Armenians
Until the Tanzimat reforms were established, the Armenian millet was under the supervision of an Ethnarch ('national' leader), the Armenian Apostolic Church. The Armenian millet had a great deal of power - they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. During the Tanzimat period, a series of constitutional reforms provided a limited modernization of the Ottoman Empire also to the Armenians. In 1856, the "Reform Edict" promised equality for all Ottoman citizens irrespective of their ethnicity and confession, widening the scope of the 1839 Edict of Gülhane.
To deal with the Armenian national awakening, the Ottomans gradually gave more rights to its Armenian and other Christian citizens. In 1863 the
Assyrians
Under the millet system of the Ottoman Empire, each sect of the Assyrian nation was represented by their respective patriarch. Under the Church of the East sect, the patriarch was the temporal leader of the millet which then had a number of "maliks" beneath the patriarch who would govern each of their own tribes.
The rise of modern Assyrian nationalism began with intellectuals such as Ashur Yousif, Naum Faiq and Farid Nazha who pushed for a united Assyrian nation comprising the Jacobite, Nestorian and Chaldean sects.[14]
Bosniaks
The Ottoman Sultans attempted to implement various economic reforms in the early 19th century in order to address the grave issues mostly caused by the border wars. The reforms, however, were usually met with resistance by the military captaincies of Bosnia. The most famous of these insurrections was the one by captain
Bulgarians
The rise of national conscience in Bulgaria led to the
Greeks
With the decline of the
The position of educated and privileged Greeks within the
Ideas of nationalism began to develop in Europe long before they reached the Ottoman Empire. Some of the first effects nationalism had on the Ottomans had much to do with the Greek War of Independence. The war began as an uprising against the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. At the time, Mehmet Ali, a former Albanian mercenary, was ruling Egypt quite successfully. One of his biggest projects was creating a modern army of conscripted peasants. The Sultan commanded him to lead his army to Greece and put a stop to these uprisings. At the time, nationalism had become an established concept in Europe and certain Greek intellectuals began to embrace the idea of a purely Greek state. Most of Europe greatly supported this notion, partly because ideas of Ancient Greece's mythology were being greatly romanticized in the Western world. Though the Greece at the time of the revolution looked very little like the European view, most supported it blindly based on this notion.
Mehmet Ali had his own motives for agreeing to invade Greece. The Sultan promised Ali that he would make him Governor of Crete, which would increase Ali's status. Ali's army had considerable success in putting down the Christian revolts at first, however before too long the European Powers intervened. They endorsed Greek nationalism and pushed both Ali's army and the rest of the Ottoman forces out of Greece.
The instance of Greek Nationalism was a major factor in introducing the concept to the Ottomans. Because of their failure in Greece, the Ottomans were forced to acknowledge the changes taking place in the West, in favor of Nationalism. The result would be the beginning of a defensive developmentalism period of Ottoman history in which they attempted to modernize to avoid the Empire falling to foreign powers. The idea of nationalism that develops out of this is called Ottomanism, and would result in many political, legal, and social changes in the Empire.
- In 1821 the Greek revolution, striving to create an independent Greece, broke out on Romanian ground, briefly supported by the princes of Moldavia and Muntenia.
- A secret Greek nationalist organization called the Friendly Society (Alexandros Ypsilantis, the leader of the Etairists, crossed the Prut River into Turkish-held Moldavia with a small force of troops. With the initial advantage of surprise, the Greeks succeeded in liberating the Peloponnese and some other areas.
Kurds
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |
The system of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged until the close of the
After the war the Kurds attempted to free themselves from Ottoman control [citation needed], and in 1834, after the Bedirkhan clan uprising, it became necessary to reduce them to subjection. This was done by Reshid Pasha. The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of the Kurd beys were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843 was firmly repressed, and after the Crimean War the Turks strengthened their hold on the country.
The
In 1891 the activity of the Armenian Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position of the Kurds by raising a body of Kurdish
Jews
Early Ottoman Empire
Jews in the Ottoman Empire had a higher quality of life and freedom than Jews in any other part of the world. The Ottoman Empire accepted Jewish refugees from France, Spain, and many other places. Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II established the Hakham Bashi, as the Rabbi of a particular region, with the Hakham Bashi of Constantinople being the most powerful.[27]
In 1492, Sultan Bayezeid II ordered governors of Ottoman provinces to accept Jewish immigration and to do so cordially. This order was in response to the Alhambra Decree, that ordered for the expulsion of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula. This resulted in a mass exodus of Jews, and due to the high level of freedom enjoyed by Ottoman Jews, many looked to immigrate to Ottoman territory. In 1492 alone, roughly 60,000 Jews arrived in the Ottoman Empire.[28]
In 1516, Ottoman Turks invaded and took control of Palestine. They controlled this land until the end of World War I, over 400 years later. Palestine contained the majority of religiously significant site and was considered the biblical homeland of the Jews.[29] The land has a similar religious significance to both Islam and Christianity as well. As the Ottoman Empire grew, there had been Jewish communities existing in much of their empire.[30]
Due to the isolated structure of Ottoman Jews, many Jewish communities developed independent of each other, and lacking of any national Jewish identity or common culture. The Jewish community was incredibly diverse due to the Jewish refugees from various countries. The Jewish communities also varied in ethnicities and languages.[31]
Zionist Movement
See Also:
While the Ottoman Empire became a safe space for Jews, parts of Europe saw increased violence and anti-semitism against Jews. Violent uprisings against Jews took place all over Eastern Europe in the Late 19th century, and civil rights of Jews were extremely limited.[32]
Zionism is an international
Although its origins are earlier, the movement became better organized and more closely linked with the imperial powers of the day following the involvement of the late 19th century
The objective of Zionism grew into the desire to form a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Early in the movement, there were many competing theories regarding the best avenue to achieve Jewish autonomy. The Jewish Territorial Organization represented a popular proposal. The organization supported finding a location, besides Palestine, for Jewish settlement.[35]
As the goal of the Zionist movement grew, many Jews already living in the Ottoman Empire wanted to leverage their relative autonomy into settlement of Palestine. Eventually, the form of Zionism with Palestine as the intended homeland prevailed among the competing theories. Palestine was chosen due to the religious and historical significance of the region. Also, the declining power and financial struggles of the Ottoman Empire was seen as an opportunity.[37] Wealthy and powerful Jews began to put their ideas into action.[38]
Jewish Settling of Palestine
See Also: First Aliyah, Second Aliyah
Herzl founded the Jewish-Ottoman Land Company. Its objective was to acquire land in Palestine, for settlement of Jews, through political channels with the Ottoman Empire. Herzl repeatedly visited Istanbul and engaged in negotiations and meetings with Ottoman officials. In 1901, Herzl was able to have a meeting with Sultan Abdul Hamid and insinuated that he had access to Jewish credit that he could help the Ottoman Empire pay off debt. The company was initially successful, however, it eventually faced opposition from Arabs and the government.[39] These negotiations are incredibly noteworthy considering Herzl was not a government official of any kind; he was just a private citizen.
The Jewish National Fund functioned similarly. It was a fund directed for land purchasing in Palestine. By 1921, around 25,000 acres had been purchased by the Fund in Palestine. Immigration of Jewish people into Palestine in 4 periods or Aliyahs.[40] The first took place between 1881 and 1903, resulting in around 25,000 immigrating. The second took place between 1904 and 1914, resulting in around 35,000 Jews immigrating.[41]
The increased Jewish population and Jewish land in Israel furthered the formation of a Jewish national identity. As the population and property owned by Jews increased in Palestine, support and backing continued to grow. However, so did tensions with other groups, especially Muslim Arabs. Arabs saw the massive Jewish immigration and financial interest in the region as threatening.[42]
Revival of Hebrew
Part of this movement included the revival of the
Outside of Palestine
Areas in the Ottoman Empire, besides Palestine contained significant Jewish presence. Iraq, Tunisia, Turkey, Greece, and Egypt all had large and formidable Jewish populations. Most of these populations could trace their lineage in these areas back thousands of years to biblical times.
Turkey
Bursa was one of the first cities with a Jewish population conquered by the Ottomans when it was conquered in 1324. The Jewish inhabitants helped the Ottoman army, and they were allowed to return to the city. The Ottomans then granted the Jewish people a certain level of autonomy. This early interaction helped set the standard for Ottoman - Jewish interaction throughout the remainder of Ottoman rule.[45]
Istanbul quickly became a cultural center for Jews in the near east. Jews were able to prosper in many high skill fields, such as the medical field. This elevated social status resulted in even more freedom and ability to solidify Jewish identities.
Iraq
The
Syria
Jewish roots in Syria can date back to Biblical times, and strong Jewish communities have been present in the region since Roman rule. An influx of Jewish settlers came to Syria after the Alhambra Decree in 1492.[49] Aleppo and Damascus were two main centers. Qamishli, a Kurdish town, also became a popular destination. The Aleppo Codex, a manuscript of the Hebrew Bible written in Tiberias, was kept at the Central Synagogue of Aleppo for nearly 600 years of Ottoman Rule. The synagogue was believed by some to have initially been constructed around 1000 BCE by Joab ben Zeruiah, the nephew and General of King David's army.[50] Inscriptions in the Synagogue date back to 834 CE. The heavy migration of Spanish and Italian Jews into Syria resulted in tension between Jewish groups already in the country. This tension was caused by differences in practices and languages. Many of the new residents spoke different languages, especially the Spanish. However, as generations passed, the descendants of Spanish and Italian settlers began to use these languages less and less. Jews continued to rise in status and power in Syria during Ottoman rule. Many Christians held angst against the rapidly increasing Jewish class causing poor relations between the two groups.[51]
Greece
During Ottoman rule, Jewish communities in Greece were able to thrive. Thessaloniki proved to be a formidable Jewish center. In 1603, around 68% of the cities population was Jewish. Many Sephardic Jews came to Thessaloniki after their expulsion from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492. The vast Sephardic immigration allowed Thessaloniki to be hub for diverse Jewish ideas. This large presence and advancement of Jews served as a strong national symbol of Jewish prosperity.[52] Thessaloniki was referred to as the "Jerusalem of the Balkans."[53] This Jewish dominance of Thessaloniki continued through the end of Ottoman rule. In around 1900, Jews still made up nearly half of Thessaloniki's 170,000 person population. Jews in Thessaloniki enjoyed a strategic and important location as a port in the Trans-Mediterranean trade network. 19th and 20th century Thessaloniki is commonly referred to as the "Golden Age" and especially for its Jewish inhabitants. The successfulness and prosperity enjoyed by Thessaloniki began to be used as an example of a Jewish state and proof that the concept would succeed.
Synagogues
An important aspect of forming a national Jewish identity, especially based upon religion, were the construction of Synagogues. The Jewish houses of worship allowed Jews to congregate in worship and share their ideas and beliefs. Many synagogues were constructed or rebuilt during Ottoman rule. The Bet Yaakov Synagogue was constructed in Istanbul in 1878. The Ahrida Synagogue is an extremely notable one built in Istanbul in the 1430s. It is located in the Balat area of Istanbul, a formerly vibrant Jewish area. These synagogues were able to function as the cultural center within their own communities.[54]
Macedonians
The national awakening of the Macedonians can be said to have begun in the late 19th century; this is the time of the first expressions of
Montenegrins
The Principality was formed on 13 March 1852 when
Romanians
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) |
The
1848 saw rebellion in both Moldavia and Wallachia.
Serbs
The Serbian national movement represents one of the first examples of successful national resistance against the Ottoman rule.[58] It culminated in two mass uprisings at the beginning of the 19th century, leading to national liberation and establishment of the Principality of Serbia.[59] One of the main centers of this movement was the Sanjak of Smederevo ("Belgrade Pashaluk"),[60] which became the core of the reestablished Serbian national state.[61]
A number of factors contributed to its rise. Above all the nucleus of national identity was preserved in the form of the Serbian Orthodox Church which remained autonomous in one form or another throughout the period of Ottoman occupation.[60] Adherence to Orthodox Christianity is still considered an important factor in ethnic self-determination. The Serbian Church preserved links with the medieval Serbian past, keeping the idea of national liberation alive.[60]
The other group of factors stem from regional political events during the period of Ottoman rule, the 17th and 18th centuries in particular. The Austrian wars against the Ottoman Empire resulted in periods of Austrian rule in
The immediate cause for the start of the
Turks
Pan-Turkism emerged with the
Turkish revolutionaries under the leadership of
Role of women
The Ottoman reforms were enforced to fight the rise of nationalism from within the state and European expansion. The Ottoman state increasingly restricted women including women with a higher status.[63] Women were not allowed to move around and wear what they desired.[63] Therefore, the goals of the reforms stated in the Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber of 1839 and the Imperial Script Hatt-I Hümayun of 1856 were actually only focused on the equality of male subjects of the Sultan in the Ottoman Empire.[63]
However, in the late centuries of the Ottoman Empire, women became more included in debates on the future of the Ottoman Empire.[63] Gender relations started to be re-examined when women started to have a new role in society.[63] The focus on nationalism in the Ottoman Empire changed the whole structure of the Ottoman society. One of the priorities of the Ottoman Empire was the development of the military to prevent the rise of nationalism and to prevent conquest of land belonging to the Ottoman Empire by Russia and Europe. Mobilization by men and women would strengthen the empire politically and economically.[63] Women were responsible for raising the new Ottoman generations.[63] Mothers were creating and maintaining cultural identity and this would support the modernization efforts.[63] Therefore, there was a demand for the improvement of women's education. The new role that women opened the way for women to assert their rights.[63] However, due to the many different ethno-religious communities within the Ottoman Empire there were many differences between communities of women.[63] The women tried to come in contact with each other to spread their ideas from one ethno-religious group to another through formal and informal ways of communication.[63] Educational institutions were spaces were information about the developments in other ethno-religious communities would be shared.[63]
In 1917, the Ottoman Law of Family Rights was part of the Ottoman reform.[64] Some women viewed this reform as a critical moment in time to improve women's rights.[64] However, this was difficult for feminists in the Ottoman Empire, because they did not want to question the role of Islam and did not want to change their own traditions in a period of nationalism.[64] The women strived for a legal reform in their favor, but the Ottoman Law of Family Rights would not change much in expanding women's rights. According to Sijjil records, women were active in Sharia courts as an attempt to change their roles and increase women's rights.[65] The Sharia courts gave women the opportunity to increase their agency.[65]
See also
References
- ^ ISBN 9780191750304. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-01-15. Retrieved 2022-12-17.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-4438-6193-9.
- ^ Cagaptay 2014, p. 70.
- ^ Stojanović 1968, p. 2.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-2968-2.
- ISBN 9781848852723. Archivedfrom the original on 2023-04-22. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
- from the original on 2021-06-22. Retrieved 2020-09-07.
- ^ a b c d e f Skendi, Stavro (1967). The Albanian National Awakening 1878-1912. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 3–88.
- ^ a b Charles Smith, The Arab-Israeli Conflict, in International Relations in the Middle East by Louise Fawcett, p. 220.
- ^ Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Arab World, Bruce Masters, Cambridge
- ^ "Arab Nationalism". Archived from the original on 2009-11-01. Retrieved 2009-08-27.
- ^ Richard G. (EDT) Hovannisian "The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times" p. 198
- ^ Ilber Ortayli, Tanzimattan Cumhuriyete Yerel Yönetim Gelenegi, Istanbul 1985, p. 73
- ^ "A Brief Study in the Palak Nationalism", by Dr. David Barsoum Perley LL.B.
- ^ Sućeska 1985, p. 81.
- ^ English translation: Leopold Ranke, A History of Serbia and the Serbian Revolution. Translated from the German by Mrs Alexander Kerr (London: John Murray, 1847)
- ^ "The Serbian Revolution and the Serbian State". Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2017-03-20.
- ^ L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (London: Hurst and Co., 2000), p. 248–250.
- ^ Babuna, Aydın (1999). "Nationalism and the Bosnian Muslims". East European Quarterly. XXXIII (2): 214.
- ^ "National revolution (from Bulgaria)". 2006-05-21. Archived from the original on 2006-05-21. Retrieved 2022-12-19.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, Morrow Quill Paperbacks (New York) 1977, p. 525.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Greece during the Byzantine period (c. AD 300–c. 1453) > Population and languages > Emerging Greek identity, 2008 ed.
- ^ Ροτζώκος Νίκος, Επανάσταση και εμφύλιος στο εικοσιένα, pages 131-137
- ISBN 0-19-285439-9.
The Greek uprising and the church. Bishop Germanos of old Patras blesses the Greek banner at the outset of the national revolt against the Turks on 25 March 1821. The solemnity of the scene was enhanced two decades later in this painting by T. Vryzakis….The fact that one of the Greek bishops, Germanos of Old Patras, had enthusiastically blessed the Greek uprising at the onset (25 March 1821) and had thereby helped to unleash a holy war, was not to gain the church a satisfactory, let alone a dominant, role in the new order of things.
- ^ "Greek Independence Day". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2015-05-03. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
The Greek revolt was precipitated on March 25, 1821, when Bishop Germanos of Patras raised the flag of revolution over the Monastery of Agia Lavra in the Peloponnese. The cry "Freedom or Death" became the motto of the revolution. The Greeks experienced early successes on the battlefield, including the capture of Athens in June 1822, but infighting ensued.
- ^ Betty Anderson, A History of the Modern Middle East: Rulers, Rebels, and Rogues (Stanford University Press, 2016).
- ^ "EHRI - Archives of the Chief Rabbinate (Sephardi community) in Istanbul". portal.ehri-project.eu. Archived from the original on 2023-04-08. Retrieved 2023-04-08.
- ^ hersh (2022-12-04). "The History of the Jews of Turkey". Aish.com. Archived from the original on 2022-12-08. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
- ^ "40 Years Of Israeli Occupation". www.arij.org. Archived from the original on 2023-04-08. Retrieved 2023-04-08.
- from the original on 2023-04-08. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- ^ Ekinci, Ekrem Buğra (2017-10-13). "Jewish Community in Ottoman Empire". Daily Sabah. Archived from the original on 2023-03-26. Retrieved 2023-04-08.
- from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2018-08-08. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- ^ Ernest Gellner, 1983. Nations and Nationalism (First edition), p 107-108.
- from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2022-11-02. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-03-09. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-03-16. Retrieved 2023-03-16.
- from the original on 2023-05-02. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- JSTOR 40000132.
- ISBN 978-90-04-35401-2.
- ^ "Judaism in Syria". rpl.hds.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on 2023-05-02. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
- ^ "Central Synagogue, Aleppo, Syria | Archive | Diarna.org". archive.diarna.org. Archived from the original on 2023-05-02. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
- ^ "Damascus Jewish History Tour". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Archived from the original on 2023-03-28. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
- from the original on 2023-05-01. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-04-08. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- from the original on 2023-05-02. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
- ^ Д. Т. Левов. Лоза, Свобода, ВИ/786, Софиja, 13. 04 1892, 3.
- ^ †Лоза#, месечно списание, издава Младата македонска книжевна дружина, Свобода, VI/774, Софија, 18. 02 1892, 3.
- ^ К.П.Мисирков, „За Македонцките работи“, јубилејно издание, Табернакул, Скопје, 2003
- ISBN 9781135167257.
- ISBN 9781315287430.
- ^ ISBN 9780521252492.
- ISBN 9788677431327.
- ^ "Turkish Society (Turkish organization) -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Archived from the original on 2008-01-23. Retrieved 2008-03-22. (1912)
- ^ from the original on 2018-06-02. Retrieved 2022-05-17.
- ^ from the original on 2022-04-15. Retrieved 2022-05-17.
- ^ from the original on 2022-12-20. Retrieved 2022-05-17.
Sources
- Karpat, Kemal H. (2002). Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History: Selected Articles and Essays. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-12101-3.
- Karpat, K.H., 1973. An inquiry into the social foundations of nationalism in the Ottoman state: From social estates to classes, from millets to nations (No. 39). Center of International Studies, Princeton University.
- Karpat, K.H., 1972. The transformation of the Ottoman State, 1789–1908. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 3(3), pp. 243–281.
- ISBN 0-679-64087-8.
- Stojanović, Mihailo D. (1968) [1939]. The Great Powers and the Balkans, 1875-1878. Cambridge University Press.
- Mete Tunçay; Erik Jan Zürcher (1994). Socialism and nationalism in the Ottoman Empire, 1876-1923. British Academic Press in association with the International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam. ISBN 978-1-85043-787-1.
- William W. Haddad; William Ochsenwald (1977). Nationalism in a non-national state: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8142-0191-6.
- Charles Jelavich; Barbara Jelavich (20 September 2012). The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804-1920. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-80360-9.
- Zeine, Z.N., 1958. Arab-Turkish Relations and the Emergence of Arab Nationalism. Khayat's.
- Kanner, Efi (2016). "Transcultural Encounters: Discourses on Women's Rights and Feminist Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, Greece, and Turkey from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Interwar Period". Journal of Women's History. 28 (3): pp. 66–92.
- Kayali, H., 1997. Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918. Univ of California Press.
- Haddad, W.W., 1977. Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire. Nationalism in a Non-national State: the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, pp. 3–25.
- Roudometof, V., 1998. From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453–1821. Journal of Modern Greek Studies, 16(1), pp. 11–48.
- Ülker, E., 2005. Contextualising ‘Turkification’: nation‐building in the late Ottoman Empire, 1908–18. Nations and Nationalism, 11(4), pp. 613–636.
- Sućeska, Avdo (1985). Istorija države i prava naroda SFRJ [History of the state and the rights of the people of SFRY]. Sarajevo: Svjetlost. OCLC 442530093.
- Sugar, P.F., 1997. Nationality and society in Habsburg and Ottoman Europe (Vol. 566). Variorum Publishing.
- Cagaptay, Soner (1 February 2014). The Rise of Turkey: The Twenty-First Century's First Muslim Power. Potomac Books, Inc. pp. 70–. ISBN 978-1-61234-650-2.
- Tucker, Judith E. (1996). "Revisiting Reform: Women and the Ottoman Law of Family Rights, 1917". The Arab Studies Journal. 4 (2), pp. 4–17.
- Zachs, Fruma; Ben-Bassat, Yuval (2015). "WOMENS VISIBILITY IN PETITIONS FROM GREATER SYRIA DURING THE LATE OTTOMAN PERIOD". International journal of Middle East Studies, 47, pp. 765–781.
- Skendi, Stavro (1967). The Albanian National Awakening 1878-1912. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, pp. 3–88.