River Severn
River Severn | |
---|---|
Location | |
Country | England and Wales |
Region | Mid Wales, West Midlands, South West |
Counties | Powys, Shropshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire |
Cities | Shrewsbury, Worcester, Gloucester, Bristol |
Physical characteristics | |
Source | |
• location | Plynlimon, Powys, Wales |
• coordinates | 52°29′36″N 3°44′05″W / 52.493464°N 3.734597°W |
• elevation | 610 m (2,000 ft) |
Mouth | Severn Estuary |
• location | Bristol Channel, United Kingdom |
• elevation | 0 m (0 ft) |
Length | 354 km (220 mi) |
Basin size | 11,420 km2 (4,410 sq mi) |
Discharge | |
• location | Bewdley, Worcs. SO 7815 7622[1] |
• average | 61.17 m3/s (2,160 cu ft/s)[1] |
• maximum | 533.48 m3/s (18,840 cu ft/s)max recorded on 1947-03-21[2] |
Discharge | |
• location | Apperley, Glos. |
• average | 107 m3/s (3,800 cu ft/s) |
Discharge | |
• location | Montford, Shrops.[3] |
• average | 43.46 m3/s (1,535 cu ft/s) |
Basin features | |
Tributaries | |
• left | Bristol Avon |
• right | Teme, Leadon, Wye |
The River Severn (Welsh: Afon Hafren, pronounced [ˈavɔn ˈhavrɛn]), at 220 miles (354 km) long, is the longest river in Great Britain.[4][5] It is also the river with the most voluminous flow of water by far in all of England and Wales, with an average flow rate of 107 m3/s (3,800 cu ft/s) at Apperley, Gloucestershire. It rises in the Cambrian Mountains in mid Wales, at an altitude of 2,001 feet (610 m), on the Plynlimon massif, which lies close to the Ceredigion/Powys border near Llanidloes. The river then flows through Shropshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire. The county towns of Shrewsbury, Worcester and Gloucester lie on its course.
The Severn's major tributaries are the
By convention, the River Severn is usually considered to end, and the Severn Estuary to begin, after the Second Severn Crossing, between Severn Beach in South Gloucestershire and Sudbrook, Monmouthshire. The total area of the Estuary's drainage basin is 4,409 square miles (11,419 km2). That figure excludes the area of the River Wye and the Bristol Avon, both of which flow into the Severn Estuary. The Estuary discharges into the Bristol Channel, which opens into the Celtic Sea and from there into the Atlantic Ocean.
Etymology and mythology
Romano-British name
The name Severn is thought to derive from a British *sabrinā, possibly from an older form *samarosina, meaning "land of summertime fallow".[6] During the Roman occupation the Severn was known by the Romano-British Latin name Sabrina.[a][b][c][d]
Name legacy
Milton's 1634 masque Comus makes Sabrina a nymph who had drowned in the river.[9] In Shrewsbury, there is now a statue of Sabrina in the Dingle Gardens at the Quarry, as well as a metal sculpture erected in 2013.[10]
There is a different deity associated with the Severn Estuary: Nodens, represented as mounted on a seahorse, riding on the crest of the Severn bore.[11]
Welsh name
The Welsh form of the name is Afon Hafren (pronounced [ˈavɔn ˈhavrɛn]) first recorded in the 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae. The Old Welsh form of the name Habren was recorded c.800.[8]
Documented history of the Welsh name:
It is possible that the Welsh name was influenced by the Hwicce people who lived along the banks of the River Severn, and by seafarers from Scandinavia. The name element hau (also haw, haha) might derive from Proto-Germanic *hauhaz ("high"), possibly from Old Norse hár or Old Saxon hōh.
The
- High prow of a wave.[14]
English name
The English form of the name ( " Severn " ) is derived from Old English Sæfern.[f][g] However the name is also influenced by English dialect seave ( " sedge, rush " ) hence the origin of the name Seaverne recorded in the 16th–17th century.[15][h]
Common club-rush (Schoenoplectus lacustris) prefers to grow in shallow water such as that found in ponds, streams and river margins.[i] The Hwicce people used the club-rush growing along the banks of the River Severn to make wicker baskets. [j][k]
Name history
The name history shows evidence of Scandinavian influence:[l]
Name | Year | Period | Influence |
---|---|---|---|
Sæferne | 894[m] | Viking Age | Old English sæfôr – " seafarer ".[n] |
Saverna | 1086[8] | Norman Conquest | English dialect seave – " sedge, rush ".[o][p] |
Severne | 1205[8] | 13th century | English dialect seave |
Sephern[q] | 1479[r] | 15th century | Old Norse sef – " sedge, rush ".[s] |
Seaverne | 1584[8] | 16th century | English dialect seave |
Seaverne | 1677[15] | 17th century | English dialect seave |
Severn | 1836[8] | 19th century |
Viking age
In the Summer of 893 a coalition of all of the Danish armies in England made a determined attempt to annex western Mercia to Danish Mercia.[t] The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (ASC)[u] recorded an account of the Battle of Buttington, and included this description of the route taken by the Danes:
"... Foron þa up be Temese oþþæt hie gedydon æt Sæferne, þa up be Sæferne.[v][w][x]
Seafarer
The Seafarer (poem)
..."þæt he a his sæfore[y] sorge næbbe,
to hwon hine Dryhten gedon wille."
..."that he never in his seafaring has a worry,
as to what his Lord will do to him."
— A passage in Old English poem
The name Sæfern might be related to:[z]
- The Sea.[aa]
- Middle English faren – "travel".[ab]
- Old Norse sær – " the sea, ocean ".[ac]
- Old Norse fara – " to fare, to travel ".[ad]
- The Old Norse personal name Sæfari – " Seafarer ".[20]
The Old Norse name Sæfari ("Seafarer") lives on as the name of the Dalvík – Grímsey ferry in Iceland.[ae][22]
Geography and geology
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2020) |
The River Severn's current form is the result of a multi-million year history and complex underlying geology but is in part the result of glaciation during the last
It was first proposed in the 1900s that the former northerly course of the upper Severn was disrupted during the course of the ice age by the blocking of its access to the Irish Sea through Cheshire causing a large lake to develop across much of Shropshire. It was supposed that this lake, named as Lake Lapworth, overtopped its southern margin and rapidly cut down to form the Ironbridge Gorge providing the Severn with a southerly exit to the sea as remains the case today.[24] An alternative theory which has gained favour in recent years does away with Lake Lapworth, suggesting that the upper Severn flowed beneath the icesheet in a bedrock hollow known as the Severn Trench eastwards from Melverley to the Ironbridge Gorge. It is possible that the trench and gorge were cut over successive ice ages.[25]
Tributary rivers
Over its length, there are a large number of tributaries, but the three largest feeding the non-tidal river are the Vyrnwy, the Teme and the Warwickshire Avon. The Wye, the Bristol Avon and the Usk all flow into the estuarine section of the Severn. The main tributaries are described in sequence below.[citation needed]
The first tributary of significance is the
The River Vyrnwy, which begins at
The
The River Teme flows eastwards from its source in
The River Wye, from its source in Plynlimon in Wales (2 miles (3 km) from the source of the Severn), flows generally south east through the Welsh towns of Rhayader and Builth Wells. It enters Herefordshire, flows through Hereford, and is shortly afterwards joined by the River Lugg, before flowing through Ross-on-Wye and Monmouth, and then southwards where it forms part of the border between England (Forest of Dean) and Wales. The Wye flows into the Severn estuary south of the town of Chepstow.
The Mounton Brook and Nedern Brooks enter on the Monmouthshire side between the two motorway crossings. The Port of Bristol is on the Severn Estuary, where another River Avon flows into it through the Avon Gorge. The River Usk and the Ebbw River flow into the Severn Estuary at Uskmouth just south of Newport.
Settlements
The river's course within Wales lies wholly within the county of Powys. The first town it encounters downstream of its source is Llanidloes where it is joined by the Dulas and the Clywedog. It flows past the villages of Llandinam and Caersws before reaching Newtown. It then runs by Abermule and Cilcewydd before flowing beside Welshpool, the last town on its course in Wales.
Entering
Several more villages sit beside the tidal stretch. Amongst these are Elmore, Epney and Framilode on the east bank and Minsterworth, Broadoak and Newnham on Severn on the west bank.
Transport
Bridges
The Severn is bridged at many places, and many of these bridges are notable in their own right. The Iron Bridge at Ironbridge was the world's first iron arch bridge. Several other bridges crossing the river were designed and built by the engineer Thomas Telford.
The two major road bridges of the Severn crossing link south eastern Wales with the southern counties of England.
- Severn Bridge – opened in 1966 carrying what is now the M48
- Second Severn Crossing – opened in 1996 carrying the M4 motorway
Prior to the construction of the first bridge in 1966, the channel was crossed by the Aust Ferry.
Other notable bridges include:
- Buttington Bridge – built in 1872
- Montford Bridge – Thomas Telford's first ever bridge design, built between 1790 and 1792
- Welsh Bridge – in the centre of Shrewsbury, built in 1795 at a cost of £8,000
- English Bridge – also in Shrewsbury, designed and completed in 1774 by John Gwynn
- Atcham Bridges – the old one built in 1774, while the newer one in 1929 carries the B4380
- Albert Edward Bridge – in Coalbrookdale, a railway bridge opened in 1864
- Coalport Bridge – like its neighbour Ironbridge, is made of cast iron, built in 1818
- Victoria Bridge – designed by John Fowler, opened in 1862. Still in use by the Severn Valley Railway
- Bewdley Bridge – designed by Telford, completed in 1798
- Holt FleetBridge – in Worcestershire and designed by Telford and opened in 1828
- Upton Town Bridge – built in 1940, the only bridge to cross between Worcester and Tewkesbury
- Queenshill Viaduct – carries the M50 between Junction 1 and 2
- Mythe Bridge – designed by Telford and opened in April 1826, located in Tewkesbury
- Haw Bridge – a steel beam bridge, west of Tewkesbury
- Maisemore Bridge – carries the A417 and is a single masonry arch, dating back to 1230.
- Over Bridge – single masonry arch, built by Telford
- Over Rail Bridge – carrying the Gloucester to Newport Line, currently the last bridge before the Severn Crossings, which is 30 miles (48 km) downstream
- Severn Rail Bridge – linking the Forest of Dean to Sharpnessdocks, partially collapsed in 1960 and was dismantled in 1967–70
Rail
The
Cars could also be transported through the Severn Tunnel. In the 1950s three trains a day made round trips between
Disasters
There have been many
There is a public right of navigation between Pool Quay, near Welshpool, and Stourport. However this stretch of the river has little traffic, other than small boats, canoes and some tour boats in Shrewsbury. Below Stourport, where the river is more navigable for larger craft, users must obtain permits from the Canal & River Trust, who are the navigation authority. During spring freshet the river can be closed to navigation.
At Upper Parting above Gloucester, the river divides into two, and flows either side of
In the tidal section of the river below Gloucester, the Gloucester Harbour Trustees are the competent harbour authority. The Trustees maintain navigation lights at various points along the river (including on Chapel Rock and Lyde Rock, and leading lights at Slime Road, Sheperdine and Berkeley Pill).
Locks
There are locks on the lower Severn to enable seagoing boats to reach as far as Stourport. The most northerly lock is at Lincomb, about 1 mile (1.6 km) downstream from Stourport.
Associated canals
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The Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal, the Worcester and Birmingham Canal, (both narrow beam) and the Herefordshire and Gloucestershire Canal join the Severn at Stourport, Worcester and Gloucester respectively. The Droitwich Barge Canal, a broad beam canal, joins the Severn at Hawford, near to the River Salwarpe, and connects to the Droitwich Canal (narrow beam) in the name town, which then forms a link to the Worcester and Birmingham Canal. The two Droitwich canals re-opened in 2010 after major restoration.
The Gloucester and Sharpness Canal connects the Severn at Gloucester to the Severn at Sharpness, avoiding a stretch of the tidal river which is dangerous to navigate. The Stroudwater Navigation used to join the tidal Severn at Framilode, but since the 1920s has connected to the Severn only via the Gloucester and Sharpness Canal.
The Lydney Canal is a short canal which connects Lydney to the river.
The section of the river between Tewkesbury and Worcester forms part of the Avon Ring, a 109-mile (175 km) circular cruising route which includes 129 locks and covers parts of three other waterways.
Passenger transport
The tidal river
Paddle steamers were operated in the Severn Estuary from the mid 19th century to the late 1970s by P & A Campbell of Bristol. The vessels, Cardiff Queen, Bristol Queen, Glen Usk, Glen Gower and Britannia all operated on this route in the 1950s and 1960s. Since 1986 Waverley Excursions has operated occasional sailings to Sharpness and Lydney by the MV Balmoral.[28]
A number of ferries were also operated on the tidal river, for example at New Passage, Purton and Arlingham. The last ferry was the Aust Ferry, which closed in 1966 when the Severn Bridge opened. One of the Aust ferries, Severn Princess, is still in Chepstow although largely derelict.
The upper river
Currently the only passenger boat operating between Shrewsbury & Gloucester is the 'River King' vessel that operates in Stourport. Worcester River Cruises used to run boat trips up and down the river between Tewkesbury and Stourport, operating the boats The Pride of the Midlands and The Earl Grosvenor.[29]
The Cathedral Ferry, a foot passenger ferry, also operates on summer weekends from the steps of Worcester Cathedral.[30]
In Shropshire the Hampton Loade Ferry used to operate across the river but has been closed since 2016.[31]
In Shrewsbury, boat trips around the loop of the town centre are at present provided by the Sabrina and depart from Victoria Quay near the Welsh Bridge during the summer.[32]
Severn Estuary
The river becomes tidal close to Maisemore, on the West Channel just north of Gloucester, and at Llanthony Weir on the East Channel. However, particularly high tides may overtop the weir at Tewkesbury, and even the foot of the weir at Worcester may experience a rise in water level of 1 foot (30 cm) or so.[33]: 19–26
The tidal river downstream from Gloucester is sometimes referred to as the Severn Estuary, but the river is usually considered to become the Severn Estuary after the Second Severn Crossing near Severn Beach, South Gloucestershire (the point to which the jurisdiction of the Gloucester Harbour Trustees extends), or at Aust, the site of the Severn Bridge.
The Severn Estuary extends to a line from
The estuary is about 2 miles (3 km) wide at Aust, and about 9 miles (14 km) wide between Cardiff and Weston-super-Mare.
Severn Sea
Until Tudor times the Bristol Channel was known as the Severn Sea, and it is still known as this in both Welsh and Cornish (Môr Hafren and Mor Havren respectively, with môr meaning sea).
Severn bore
A phenomenon associated with the lower reaches of the Severn is the tidal bore,[33] which forms upstream of the port of Sharpness.
It is frequently asserted that the river's estuary, which empties into the Bristol Channel, has the second largest tidal range in the world—48 feet (15 m),[34][35] exceeded only by the Bay of Fundy. However a tidal range greater than that of the Severn is recorded from the lesser known Ungava Bay in Canada.[36] During the highest tides, the rising water is funnelled up the Severn estuary into a wave that travels rapidly upstream against the river current. The largest bores occur in spring, but smaller ones can be seen throughout the year. The bore is accompanied by a rapid rise in water level which continues for about one and a half hours after the bore has passed.
Industry
A 3-mile (4.8 km) stretch of the River Severn in Shropshire, is known as Ironbridge Gorge. It was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1986. Its historic importance is due to its role as the centre of the iron industry in the early stages of the Industrial Revolution. The gorge and the village of Ironbridge get their name from the Iron Bridge across the Severn, built in 1779, which was the first cast-iron arch bridge ever constructed.[37]
Two nuclear power stations are situated on the river, in the area of South Gloucestershire.
Wildlife
The sides of the estuary are also important feeding grounds for waders, notably at the Bridgwater Bay National Nature Reserve and the Slimbridge Wildfowl Trust. River shingle habitat can also be found on the lower estuary, notable for its population of the endangered 5-spot Ladybird.[39]
Before the installation of the weirs, sturgeon and grey seals would regularly reach as far upstream as Worcester.[40] In the winter of 2011/2012 a female grey seal spent several weeks on the river in Bewdley.[40] The same individual was seen at and around Worcester from October to December 2013.[40]
The river forms part of the Severn-Trent flyway, a route used by migratory birds to cross Great Britain.[41]
Literary and musical allusions
The River Severn is named several times in A. E. Housman's A Shropshire Lad (1896): "It dawns in Asia, tombstones show/And Shropshire names are read;/And the Nile spills his overflow/Beside the Severn's dead" ("1887"); "Severn stream" ("The Welsh Marches"); and "Severn shore" ("Westward from the high-hilled plain...").
In Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1, Henry "Hotspur" Percy recalls the valour of Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March in a long battle against Welshman Owain Glyndŵr upon the banks of the Severn, claiming the flooding Severn "affrighted with [the warriors'] bloody looks ran fearfully among the trembling reeds and hid his crisp head in the hollow bank, bloodstained with these valiant combatants."
The Severn was the inspiration for a number of works by Gloucestershire composer Ivor Gurney, including the songs "Western Sailors" (1925) and "Severn Meadows" (1917).
Gloucestershire writer and poet Brian Waters published Severn Tide with J. M. Dent in 1947 and followed it with Severn Stream in 1949. With anecdotal stories about his travels, both books tell of the lives of the people who lived and worked on and along the river, describing the landscape with a poet's eye. Waters links Nodens with the Severn Bore and the association of the Celtic deity with the river is explored at length by Rogers.[9]
Several 20th-century English composers wrote works inspired by the river. Gerald Finzi (1901-1956) wrote A Severn Rhapsody, his Opus 3, in 1923; taking the Severn River and its surrounding countryside as his inspiration. Edward Elgar (1857-1934) wrote The Severn Suite, Opus 87, in 1930. Elgar lived much of both his early life and his later life near Worcester, through which the Severn runs. Herbert Howells (1892-1983), born close to the Severn in Lydney, wrote the complex Missa Sabrinensis (Mass of the Severn) in 1954, and an earlier hymn tune simply entitled Severn.
The Severn is often mentioned in
In Julian Barnes' 2011 novel, The Sense of an Ending, Tony, the main character, recalls "a river rushing nonsensically upstream, its wave and wash lit by half a dozen chasing torchbeams," an allusion to a visit to the Severn Bore.
In the song "The Last Bristolian Pirate" by The Longest Johns, a disgruntled farmer decides to become a pirate on the Severn, attacking innocent travellers down the river.[42]
See also
- List of crossings of the River Severn
- List of rivers of England and List of rivers of Wales, between them recording all main tributaries
- The Severn Way long-distance footpath
- The Severn Area Rescue Association operates search and rescue services and lifeboats from Wyre Forest to Beachley (4 stations on the river)
- Mercia Inshore Search and Rescue are based at Upton-upon-Severn
- The Severn Valley, an area straddling Shropshire and Worcestershire
- Severnside, a term with various uses
- Seven Natural Wonders – 2005 TV programme where the river was described as one of the wonders of the West Country.
- Stourport Ring
- South Herefordshire and Over Severn - National Character Area
References
Notes
- ^ Dictionary – Old English (Clark Hall) < Sæfern >
- " Severn " (Latin Sabrina).[7]
- ^ See Ancient Rome > Language > . . .The native language of the Romans was Latin.
- ^ The name was recorded in the 2nd century:
- ^ See Roman Britain > Diocletian's reforms > Map of ROMAN BRITANNIA about 410 > Sabrina Aest
- ^ Old Welsh breni – " prow of a ship ".[12]
- ^ Dictionary – Old English (Clark Hall) < Sæfern >
- " Severn "[7]
- ^ WiKtionary : Old English < Sæfern >
- " Severn "
- ^ See Rushbearing > Dialect names for rush.
- perennial found in shallow water in lakes, ponds, canals, slow rivers. . .It can reach heights of up to ten feet in height with a thickness of nearly an inch at its base. . . "[16]
- ^ See Hwicce > Name > . . .It is also likely that "Hwicce" referred to the native tribes living along the banks of the River Severn, . . .who were weavers using rushes. . .growing profusely to create baskets.
- ^ Common club-rush or Bulrush.Schoenoplectus lacustris ( Richard Mabey ). . . " The rounded stems are straight and jointless, which makes them ideal for plaiting and weaving into baskets, mats. . . " [16]
- ^ Aelfred's Britain (Max Adams). . . " Words loaned both ways between Old English and Old Norse . . .[17]
- ^ ASC ‘A’ sa 894 recte 893
- ^ Dictionary – Old English (Clark Hall) < sæfôr >
- " sea−voyage "[7]
- ^ WiKtionary : English dialect < seave > From Old Norse sef, whence also Danish siv, Icelandic sef and Swedish säv ("club-rush").
- ^ WiKtionary : Old Norse < sef >
- " sedge, rush ".
- ^ See also River Seph, Bilsdale, North York Moors.
- ^
". . .Servern id est aqua Haveren id est Sephern 1479[8]
- ^ WiKtionary : Old Norse < sef >
- " sedge, rush ".
- ^ North-West Mercia (Wainwright). . . " It has been suggested that these raids were a deliberate attempt to annex western Mercia to Danish Mercia. . . "[18]
- ^ The ASC is written in Old English.
- ^ ASC ‘A’ sa 894 recte 893
- ^ North-West Nercia (Wainwright) . . " In the Summer of 893 the two Danish Armies, supported by considerable reinforcements from the East Anglian and Northumbrian Danes, moved from Shoebury. . . "
. . . " up along the Thames until they came to the Severn and then up along the Severn. . . [18]
- ships. . .that provided Viking armies with a means of swift and efficient movement through Britain's interior . . .increased the range of ther attacks. . .able to destabiliseAnglo-Saxon kingdoms. . .[19]
- ^ sæfôr – " seafaring ".
- ^ Aelfred's Britain (Max Adams). . . " Words loaned both ways between Old English and Old Norse. . .[17]
- ^ Dictionary – Old English ( Clark Hall )
- ^ WiKtionary : Middle English < faren >
- " To move, go or travel "
- ^ WiKtionary : Old Norse < sær >
- " the sea, ocean ".
- ^ WiKtionary : Old Norse < fara >
- " to fare, to travel ".
- ^ SAEFARI (IMO: 9041277) is a Passenger/Cargo Ship. . .[21]
Citations
- ^ a b "National River Flow Archive – 54001 Severn @ Bewdley". Archived from the original on 23 October 2007. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
- ^ "HiFlows-UK". Archived from the original on 9 January 2007. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
- ^ "National River Flow Archive – 54001 Severn @ Montford". Archived from the original on 23 October 2007. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
- ^ "Frankwell Flood Alleviation Scheme, Shrewsbury" (PDF). UK Environment Agency. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2010.
- ^ "The River Severn Facts". BBC. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 28 December 2006.
- ^ Price, Bronwen (2009). Unknown, unfamiliar and abnormal worlds. Engaged knowing in the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age of the Irish Sea Region (PDF) (PhD). Cardiff University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f g Clark Hall 1916, p. 524.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l *"Welsh Place-names: Afon Hafren ( River Severn)". People's Collection Wales. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
- ^ a b Liam Rogers. "Sabrina and the River Severn". Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2006.
- ^ "Statues of famous Salopians unveiled in Shrewsbury". Shropshire Star. 26 June 2013. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
- ISBN 0-86283-174-1.
- ^ Falileyev 2000, pp. 18.
- ^ *"GPC – A dictionary of the Welsh language". University of Wales. Retrieved 3 August 2023.
- ^ "MAGiC MaP : The Haw (Severn bore) near Tewkesbury". Natural England – Magic in the Cloud.
- ^ a b Raithby 1819, pp. 892–893.
- ^ a b Mabey 1996, pp. 389–391.
- ^ a b Adams 2017, p. 136.
- ^ a b Wainwright 1975, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Williams 2017, pp. 145.
- ^ *"Nordic Names – Saefari – "Seafarer"". Nordic Names. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
- ^ *"SAEFARI (IMO: 9041277)". MarineTraffic. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
- ^ *"Ferry from Dalvík: Sæfari". Akureyrarbaer. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
- ISSN 1750-855X.
- ^ "The Ice Age Legacy in North Shropshire" (PDF). Proceedings of the Shropshire Geological Society. 13. Shropshire Geological Society: 86−91. 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 June 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2020.
- ISBN 1861268033.
- ISBN 978-1-84868-033-3
- ^ "OS Maps - online and App mapping system - Ordnance Survey Shop". Archived from the original on 31 January 2009. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
- ^ "Waverley Excursions website". Archived from the original on 4 August 2009.
- ^ Worcester River Cruises website Archived 8 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Pryce, Mike (22 June 2019). "NOSTALGIA: Worcester's Cathedral Ferry is a Severn tradition". Worcester News. Archived from the original on 24 June 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2019.
- ^ "Hampton Loade Station". Severn Valley Railway. Archived from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
- ^ "shrewsburyboat.co.uk". Archived from the original on 5 September 2008. Retrieved 11 September 2008.
- ^ ISBN 0-7153-8508-9.
- ^ "About the Severn Estuary". UK Environment Agency. 5 March 2006. Archived from the original on 5 February 2009. Retrieved 13 March 2010.
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- ^ a b c Winnall, Rosemary (2013). "Grey Seal in Bewdley!" (PDF). Wyre Forest Study Group Annual Review: 6–8.
- ISBN 978-1405335126.
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Sources
- Adams, Max (2017). Aelfred's Britain: War and Peace in the Viking Age. ISBN 9781784080310.
- Clark Hall, John Richard (1916). A Concise Anglo−Saxon Dictionary, Second Edition. The Macmillan Company.
- Falileyev, Alexander (2000). Etymological Glossary of Old Welsh. ISBN 3-484-42918-6.
- ISBN 1-85619-377-2.
- Raithby, John, ed. (1819). Charles II, 1677 & 1678: An Act for Preservation of Fishing in the River of Seaverne. British History Online. pp. 892–893. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
- Wainwright, F. T. (1975). Scandinavian England: Collected Papers. ISBN 0-900592-65-6.
- Williams, Thomas (2017). Viking Britain - A History. ISBN 978-0-00-817195-7.
External links
- Severn Estuary Partnership
- Portishead and Bristol Lifeboat Archived 19 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ITV Local footage ITV's Keith Wilkinson and Jennifer Binns canoeing the Severn
- Woodend, a hamlet washed away by the River Severn
- Canal & River Trust official site