Road
A road is a thoroughfare for the conveyance of traffic that mostly has an improved surface for use by vehicles (motorized and non-motorized) and pedestrians. Unlike streets, whose primary function is to serve as public spaces, the main function of roads is transportation.
There are
The primary features of roads include
.Definitions
Historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or some maintenance.[1]
The
The
The 1968 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic defines a road as the entire surface of any way or street open to public traffic.[4]
In urban areas roads may diverge through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a dual function as urban space easement and route.[5] Modern roads are normally smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel.[6]
Australia
Part 2, Division 1, clauses 11–13 of the National Transport Commission Regulations 2006 defines a road in Australia as 'an area that is open to or used by the public and is developed for, or has as one of its main uses, the driving or riding of motor vehicles.'[7]
Further, it defines a shoulder (typical an area of the road outside the edge line, or the curb) and a road-related area which includes green areas separating roads, areas designated for cyclists and areas generally accessible to the public for driving, riding or parking vehicles.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, the definition of a road is broad in common law[8] where the statutory definition includes areas the public has access to, by right or not.[9] Beaches, publicly accessible car parks and yards (even if privately owned), river beds, road shoulders (verges), wharves and bridges are included.[10] However, the definition of a road for insurance purposes may be restricted to reduce risk.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom The Highway Code details rules for "road users", but there is some ambiguity between the terms highway and road.[11] For the purposes of the English law, Highways Act 1980, which covers England and Wales but not Scotland or Northern Ireland, road is "any length of highway or of any other road to which the public has access, and includes bridges over which a road passes".[12] This includes footpaths, bridleways and cycle tracks, and also road and driveways on private land and many car parks.[13] Vehicle Excise Duty, a road use tax, is payable on some vehicles used on the public road.[13]
The definition of a road depends on the definition of a highway; there is no formal definition for a highway in the relevant Act. A 1984 ruling said "the land over which a public right of way exists is known as a highway; and although most highways have been made up into roads, and most easements of way exist over footpaths, the presence or absence of a made road has nothing to do with the distinction.
United States
In the United States, laws distinguish between public roads, which are open to public use,[17] and private roads, which are privately controlled.[18]
History
The assertion that the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted; in many cases animals do not follow constant paths.[1] Some believe that some roads originated from following animal trails.[24][25] The Icknield Way may exemplify this type of road origination, where human and animal both selected the same natural line.[26] By about 10,000 BC human travelers used rough roads/pathways.[1]
- The world's oldest known paved road was constructed in Egypt some time between 2600 and 2200 BC.[27]
- Stone-paved streets appear in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC.[1]
- Glastonbury, England.[1]
- The timber track causeway in England, is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered and the oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe. Built in winter 3807 BC or spring 3806 BC, (tree-ring dating – dendrochronology – enabled very precise dating). It was claimed to be the oldest road in the world[28][29] until the 2009 discovery of a 6,000-year-old trackway in Plumstead, London.[30][31]
- Brick-paved streets appeared in India as early as 3000 BC.[1]
- c. 1995 BC: an early subdividing of roadways evidenced with sidewalks built in Anatolia.[32]
- In 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for the Achaemenid Empire (Persia), including the Royal Road, which was one of the finest highways of its time,[33] connecting Sardis (the westernmost major city of the empire) to Susa. The road remained in use after Roman times. These road systems reached as far east as Bactria and India.[34]
- In ancient times, transport by river was far easier and faster than transport by road,[29] especially considering the cost of road construction and the difference in carrying capacity between carts and river barges. A hybrid of road transport and ship transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank.[35][36]
- From about 312 BC, the Roman miles of paved roads.[29]
- In the 8th century AD, many roads were built throughout the oil fields in the region, through the chemical process of destructive distillation.[38]
- The Royal Commission that led to the demise of the system in 1844,[39] which coincided with the development of the UK railway system.
- In the late-19th century roading engineers began to cater for cyclists by building separate lanes alongside roadways.
- From the beginning of the 20th century, roads were increasingly built for tourism and also to create jobs. A typical example of the stimulation of tourism is the Great Dolomite Road, while the creation of the panoramic coastal road Strada Costiera between Duino and Barcola, Italy, in 1928 was very much focused on creating jobs.[40][41]
- The autostrada, contained only one lane in each direction and no interchanges.
Construction
In
After design,
Roads are designed and built for primary use by
: 38–40A
Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed before construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment. Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is damaged. Much of the vegetation may be
Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock or other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to meet the design requirements (generally 90–95% relative compaction).
General
The completed roadway is finished by paving or left with a gravel or other
According to a May 2009 report by the
When a
Reallocation
Roads that are intended for use by a particular mode of transport can be reallocated for another mode of transport,[50] i.e. by using traffic signs. For instance, in the ongoing road space reallocation effort, some roads (particularly in city centers) which are intended for use by cars are increasingly being repurposed for cycling and/or walking.[51][52][53]
Maintenance
Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to environmental effects such as
Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some parts of the United Kingdom the standard design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30-year milestones.[56] Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). When pavement lasts longer than its intended life, it may have been overbuilt, and the original costs may have been too high. When a pavement fails before its intended design life, the owner may have excessive repair and rehabilitation costs. Some asphalt pavements are designed as perpetual pavements with an expected structural life in excess of 50 years.[57]
Many asphalt pavements built over 35 years ago, despite not being specifically designed as a perpetual pavement, have remained in good condition long past their design life.[58] Many concrete pavements built since the 1950s have significantly outlived their intended design lives.[59] Some roads like Chicago's Wacker Drive, a major two-level (and at one point, three-level) roadway in the downtown area, are being rebuilt with a designed service life of 100 years.[60]
Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Pro-active agencies use
Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include thin asphalt overlays, crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, fog sealing, micro milling or diamond grinding and surface treatments. Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves the functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity.[61]
Older concrete pavements that develop faults can be repaired with a dowel bar retrofit, in which slots are cut in the pavement at each joint, and dowel bars are placed in the slots, which are then filled with concrete patching material. This can extend the life of the concrete pavement for 15 years.[62]
Failure to maintain roads properly can create significant costs to society. A 2009 report released by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials estimated that about 50% of the roads in the US are in bad condition, with urban areas worse. The report estimates that urban drivers pay an average of $746/year on vehicle repairs while the average US motorist pays about $335/year. In contrast, the average motorist pays about $171/year in road maintenance taxes (based on 600 gallons/year and $0.285/gallon tax).
Slab stabilization
Distress and serviceability loss on concrete roads can be caused by loss of support due to voids beneath the concrete pavement slabs. The voids usually occur near cracks or joints due to surface water infiltration. The most common causes of voids are pumping, consolidation, subgrade failure and bridge approach failure. Slab stabilization is a non-destructive method of solving this problem and is usually employed with other concrete pavement restoration methods including patching and diamond grinding. The technique restores support to concrete slabs by filing small voids that develop underneath the concrete slab at joints, cracks or the pavement edge.
The process consists of pumping a cementitious grout or polyurethane mixture through holes drilled through the slab. The grout can fill small voids beneath the slab and/or sub-base. The grout also displaces free water and helps keep water from saturating and weakening support under the joints and slab edge after stabilization is complete. The three steps for this method after finding the voids are locating and drilling holes, grout injection and post-testing the stabilized slabs.
Slab stabilization does not correct depressions, increase the design structural capacity, stop erosion or eliminate faulting. It does, however, restore the slab support, therefore, decreasing deflections under the load. Stabilization should only be performed at joints and cracks where the loss of support exists. Visual inspection is the simplest manner to find voids. Signs that repair is needed are transverse joint faulting, corner breaks and shoulder drop off and lines at or near joints and cracks. Deflection testing is another common procedure used to locate voids. It is recommended to do this testing at night as during cooler temperatures, joints open, aggregate interlock diminishes and load deflections are at their highest.
Testing
Ground penetrating radar pulses electromagnetic waves into the pavement and measures and graphically displays the reflected signal. This can reveal voids and other defects.
The epoxy/core test, detects voids by visual and mechanical methods. It consists of drilling a 25 to 50 millimeter hole through the pavement into the sub-base with a dry-bit
Common stabilization materials include
Joint sealing
Also called joint and crack repair, this method's purpose is to minimize infiltration of surface water and incompressible material into the joint system. Joint sealants are also used to reduce dowel bar corrosion in concrete pavement restoration techniques. Successful resealing consists of old sealant removal, shaping and cleaning the reservoir, installing the backer rod and installing the sealant. Sawing, manual removal, plowing and cutting are methods used to remove the old sealant. Saws are used to shape the reservoir. When cleaning the reservoir, no dust, dirt or traces of old sealant should remain. Thus, it is recommended to water wash, sand-blast and then air blow to remove any sand, dirt or dust. The backer rod installation requires a double-wheeled, steel roller to insert the rod to the desired depth. After inserting the backer rod, the sealant is placed into the joint. There are various materials to choose for this method including hot pour bituminous liquid, silicone and preformed compression seals.[63][65][66][67]
Safety considerations
Careful design and construction of roads can increase road traffic safety and reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) on the highway system from traffic collisions.
On neighborhood roads
Lane markers in some countries and states are marked with Cat's eyes or Botts dots. Botts dots are not used where it is icy in the winter, because frost and snowplows can break the glue that holds them to the road, although they can be embedded in short, shallow trenches carved in the roadway, as is done in the mountainous regions of California.
For major roads risk can be reduced by providing
The placement of energy attenuation devices (e.g. guardrails, wide grassy areas, sand barrels) is also common. Some
Road conditions
Road conditions are the collection of factors describing the ease of driving on a particular stretch of road, or on the roads of a particular locality, including the quality of the
Various government agencies and private entities, including local news services, track and report on road conditions to the public so that drivers going through a particular area can be aware of hazards that may exist in that area. News agencies, in turn, rely on tips from area residents with respect to certain aspects of road conditions in their coverage area.[72]
Environmental performance
Careful design and construction of a road can reduce any negative environmental impacts. Water management systems can be used to reduce the effect of pollutants from roads.[73][74] Rainwater and snowmelt running off of roads tends to pick up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, trash and other pollutants and result in water pollution. Road runoff is a major source of nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are created as combustion byproducts of gasoline and other fossil fuels.[75]
Roads are a chief source of noise pollution. In the early 1970s, it was recognized that design of roads can be conducted to influence and minimize noise generation.[78] Noise barriers can reduce noise pollution near built-up areas. Regulations can restrict the use of engine braking.
Regulation
Right- and left-hand traffic
Traffic flows on the right or on the left side of the road depending on the country.
About 33% of the world by population drive on the left, and 67% keep right. By road distances, about 28% drive on the left, and 72% on the right,[84] even though originally most traffic drove on the left worldwide.[85] Currently, there are about 165 countries and territories in the world that participate in right-hand traffic, while the remaining 75 countries and territories still use the left-hand traffic rule.[86][87][88] Many countries that use left-hand traffic were once part of the British Empire,[89][90][91] while others, including Indonesia, Japan, Nepal, Bhutan, Macao, Thailand, Mozambique, Suriname, the United States Virgin Islands, Sweden, and Iceland (which have used right-hand traffic since September 1967 and late May 1968, respectively), were not. Most countries that were once part of the French colonial empire adopted right-hand traffic.[92]
Economics
Transport economics is used to understand both the relationship between the transport system and the wider economy and the complex effects of the road network structure when there are multiple paths and competing modes for both personal and freight (road/rail/air/ferry) and where induced demand can result in increased on decreased transport levels when road provision is increased by building new roads or decreased (for example California State Route 480). Roads are generally built and maintained by the public sector using taxation although implementation may be through private contractors).[93][94] or occasionally using road tolls.[95]
- design/build
- design/build/operate/maintain
- design/build/finance/operate
- build/own/operate
Society depends heavily on efficient roads. In the
Construction costs
According to the New York State Thruway Authority,[98] some sample per-mile costs to construct multi-lane roads in several US northeastern states were:
- Connecticut Turnpike – $3,449,000 per mile
- New Jersey Turnpike – $2,200,000 per mile
- Pennsylvania Turnpike (Delaware Extension) – $1,970,000 per mile
- Northern Indiana Toll Road – $1,790,000 per mile
- Garden State Parkway – $1,720,000 per mile
- Massachusetts Turnpike – $1,600,000 per mile
- Thruway, New York to Pennsylvania Line – $1,547,000 per mile
- Ohio Turnpike – $1,352,000 per mile
- Pennsylvania Turnpike (early construction) – $736,000 per mile
Statistics
The United States has the largest network of roads of any country with 4,050,717 miles (6,518,997 km) as of 2009.
Global connectivity
Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America, and Australia each have an extensive road network that connects most cities. The North and South American road networks are separated by the
Even well-connected road networks are controlled by many different legal jurisdictions, and laws such as
Many populated domestic islands are connected to the mainland by bridges. A very long example is the 113 mi (182 km) Overseas Highway connecting many of the Florida Keys with the continental United States.
Even on mainlands, some
.Most disconnected settlements have local road networks connecting ports, buildings, and other points of interest.
Where demand for travel by road vehicle to a disconnected island or mainland settlement is high,
In polar areas, disconnected settlements are often more easily reached by
Road transport of people and cargo by may also be obstructed by border controls and travel restrictions. For example, travel from other parts of Asia to South Korea would require passage through the hostile country of North Korea. Moving between most countries in Africa and Eurasia would require passing through Egypt and Israel, which is a politically sensitive area.
Some places are intentionally
Roads are under construction to many remote places, such as the villages of the Annapurna Circuit, and a road was completed in 2013 to Mêdog County. Additional intercontinental and transoceanic fixed links have been proposed, including a Bering Strait crossing that would connect Eurasia-Africa and North America, a Malacca Strait Bridge to the largest island of Indonesia from Asia, and a Strait of Gibraltar crossing to connect Europe and Africa directly.
See also
- Glossary of road transport terms
- Highway engineering
- Issue tracking systems for reporting road defects
- List of countries by road network size
- List of roads and highways
- Road transport
- Trade route
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