Road space rationing
Road space rationing, also known as alternate-day travel, driving restriction and no-drive days (
The practical implementation of this traffic restraint policy is common in Latin America, and in many cases, the road rationing has as a main goal the reduction of air pollution, such as the cases of
also have similar driving restriction schemes in place.After a temporary implementation of road space rationing to reduce air pollution in Beijing during the 2008 Summer Olympics, local officials put in place several permanent rationing schemes to improve the city's air quality. As of June 2016[update], another 11 Chinese cities have similar restriction schemes in place. Also, temporary driving restrictions to reduce cars on the streets by half during severe pollution events have been implemented in Paris and surrounding suburbs in March 2014, March 2015, and December 2016; in Beijing twice in December 2015, and one more time in December 2016; and also in Rome and Milan for several days in December 2015. A similar alternate-day travel temporary scheme was implemented in New Delhi as a two-week trial in January 2016. A temporary ban on diesel cars was implemented in Oslo on municipal roads in January 2017.
Historical background
The earliest known implementation of road space rationing took place in Ancient Rome, as carriages and carts pulled by horses created serious congestion problems in several Roman cities. In 45 B.C. Julius Caesar declared the center of Rome off-limits between 6 a.m. and 4 p.m. to all vehicles except for carriages transporting priests, officials, visitors, and high-ranking citizens.[1]
Effectiveness
Schemes rationing access based on number plate have mixed results. If used infrequently or temporarily the alternate-day travel policy can have some impact. However, if used as a long term measure, inequality issues might arise, as wealthier people can afford to own two cars with opposite-parity number plates, to circumvent any restrictions, with the second vehicle being often older and therefore more polluting.
The program's impact on moving behavior to more sustainable transport methods is also unclear. Evaluations on the effectiveness of road space rationing regulations focus mainly on whether there is a decrease in the usage of the less sustainable vehicles for which the schemes were implemented in the first place. They do not focus on whether there is a change in the pattern in which such vehicles are used. For example, evaluations examine how many people stop using a polluting car. They do not evaluate how many people start riding bicycles or carpool as a result of such schemes.[6]
Evaluating effectiveness
It is important to better understand the effectiveness of the regulatory policies intended to reduce
Three methods can be employed to measure the effectiveness of regulatory policies. The first measure, administration evaluation, examines how road space rationing is delivered and enforced to the target audience. The second measure, behavioral evaluation, focuses on the extent to which the regulation changes the behavior of the target audience. The third measure, outcome performance, analyzes the outcomes of the regulation. To collect information on these measures, direct observation, stated preferences surveys, and revealed preference surveys can be conducted. These methods can be conducted in isolation or simultaneously to procure rich data. The problems associated with these methods are observer bias in direct observation, the spread of misinformation when respondents are untruthful, and excess time consumption.[6]
Applications of road space rationing
Permanent alternate-day travel schemes
Road space rationing based on license numbers has been implemented in cities such as
Bertrand Delanoë, the mayor of Paris, proposed to impose a complete ban on motor vehicles in the city's inner districts, with exemptions only for residents, businesses, and the disabled, as a three-part plan to implement during a seven-year period.[13] This proposal was made in 2005, in the context of Paris' bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics[14] which ended up being won by London.
During the discussions regarding the proposal to introduce
Athens
Rising traffic in Athens during the 1990s led to the development of the
Bogotá
Then mayor
Then mayor Antanas Mockus extended the restriction for one hour in 2001. A complementary program called "El Pico y Placa Ambiental" (literally in Spanish: "environmental peak and license plate") was implemented by then mayor Luis Eduardo Garzón in 2006, expanding the restriction to public transportation vehicles, including both bus and taxi services.[18] Four numbers were restricted every day for private use vehicles, and two for public transportation vehicles. Since 2002 Bogotá's scheme switched the combinations of days and numbers every year, making it harder to circumvent the restriction by buying another car.[19]
Starting in February 2009, then mayor
Since December 2014, exempted vehicles include passenger cars with three or more passengers including the driver; properly registered vehicles for use by
Similar schemes with the same name have been implemented in several Colombian cities, including Armenia, Barranquilla, Bucaramanga, Cali, Cartagena, Manizales, Medellín, and Pereira.[citation needed]
Jakarta
The no-drive day in Jakarta is known as Ganjil Genap (even and odd [days] in Indonesian). This policy imitates what has been done in Beijing during the Olympics. Policeman checks license plate's last digit on the entrance of avenue or expressway. A car with even license plate (for example B 1000 LA, obsolete plate of Idris Sardi car) is allowed to pass in "even days", but will be fined when they pass that road in "odd days". Drivers might get even/odd days information from social media to radio stations. The Ganjil Genap first time implemented in Sudirman Avenue on 27 July 2016.[23] Ganjil Genap was implemented due to "3-in-1 policy" termination started from 16 May 2016 by former Jakarta Governor Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (or Ahok).[24] 3-in-1 policy banned vehicles containing less than 3 passengers. 3-in-1 existed for 12 years and a half (23 December 2003 – 16 May 2016), but abandoned by Basuki due to a trick known as joki 3 in 1. He said that joki 3 in 1 practice often exploited kids, just to fill the car to 3 people when passing checkpoints.[25] Police authorities also admitted that control of 3-in-1 was harder than license plate checking, due to joki 3-in-1 hack. In 2018, license plate checking also applied on expressways bound to Jakarta suburban area (
Mexico City
The program is intended to improve the
Hoy No Circula is coupled with an exhaust monitoring program, known as "Verificación" in Spanish (verification), whereby a car's pollutant emissions are analyzed every six months. A colored sticker based on a vehicle's license plate number is affixed to each vehicle following an emissions test, indicating whether a vehicle is exempt from the program or not. Hybrid electric vehicles and electric vehicles are exempted. There are other restrictions that are applicable to non-local vehicles and foreigners.[28][29] In June 2015, the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation ruled in favor a constitutional challenge, and ordered that passenger cars with model year older than 2007 shall be restricted based on their actual tailpipe emissions, and not on how old the car is.[30]
Taxis, buses, police cars, ambulances, fire trucks, commercial vehicles operating with liquid propane gas, and commercial vehicles transporting perishable goods are exempt. In 2008 the scheme in Mexico City was extended to limit driving into the city one Saturday every month, but only applies to cars that are more than 10-years old (sticker 2). Foreign-plated vehicles without emissions stickers are restricted all day every Saturday.[31] Similar alternate-day travel restriction programs have been implemented in Pachuca, Puebla and Toluca.[30]
The driving restriction program was initially successful in reducing pollution levels, as carbon monoxide (CO) fell by 11%. Compliance with the program is near universal. However, as the restriction was made permanent residents began buying second cars to get around the ban, usually used and old polluting cars. A 2008 study from the University of Michigan found that there is no evidence that the restrictions have improved air quality. Evidence from additional sources indicates that the restrictions led to an increase in the total number of vehicles in circulation and the long-term impact of the scheme on CO levels has been a 13% rise.[19][26]
San José
An alternate-day travel scheme was introduced in
Initially the driving restriction was applied to enter the capital's central business district and the scheme is based on the last number of the license plate, restricting two numbers per day, Monday through Friday.
In June 2008 the restricted cordon area was expanded until San José's Boulevard Circunvalación peripheral ring.
The alternate-day driving program was suspended in June 2009 as a result of a Constitutional Court ruling in favor a constitutional challenge. The court ruled that the policy infringed the constitutional freedom of movement right, and also that the economic sanctions for this violation were not supported by the existing legal framework.[38] The temporary end of the program resulted in heavy traffic jams all over the city, as traffic volumes within the restricted cordon area increased by 20% to 25%.[39][40] The driving restriction scheme was restored one month later by an Executive Decree based on amendments included in the Traffic Law passed by Congress in 2008. Nevertheless, this time the program was justified on San José's worsening traffic congestion levels instead of the economic impact of high oil prices.[41][42]
Since October 2012
Santiago
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2016) |
Driving restrictions were introduced in Santiago in 1986, as a measure to mitigate Chile's capital high levels of air pollution. The scheme was based on the last number of the license plate. Two numbers are banned from entering the city between Monday and Friday. In 1992, Santiago reformed its program to adopt vintage-specific restrictions. These restrictions placed higher limits on old, more polluting cars and lower limits on new, less polluting cars. The 1992 reform led to a significant impact on the emissions created by local pollutants in Santiago. A price effect that favored less polluting car models was also seen. Households in localities facing restrictions owned more 1992 or older built vehicles without catalytic converter than households in localities that did not face restrictions. This reform highlights the effect of vintage-specific restrictions on fleet-composition. It does not provide information on how such a policy can be designed and how welfare is impacted by its implementation. It does not provide information on how such a policy can be designed and how welfare is impacted by its implementation.[45]
Initially the restriction applied only to passenger vehicles without a
São Paulo
São Paulo is the largest metropolis in the world with a permanent alternate-day travel restriction (Portuguese: rodízio veicular). The scheme was first implemented in 1995 as a trial on a voluntary basis, and then as a mandatory restriction implemented in August 1996 to mitigate air pollution, and thereafter made permanent in June 1997 to relieve traffic congestion.[47][48] The driving restriction applies to passenger cars and commercial vehicles, and it is based on the last digit of the license plate. Two numbers are restricted to travel every day from 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 5 p.m. to 8 p.m. from Monday through Friday.[49]
Vehicles exempted from the restriction include buses and other urban transportation vehicles,
Temporary restrictions
Beijing
Temporary driving restrictions were imposed in Beijing from December 8 to 10, 2015, as part of the smog mitigation measures provided for in Beijing's red alert for hazardous smog, the first such alert issued ever. The smog alert system was put in place in 2013, and a red alert should go into effect if there is a prediction that the air quality index will stay over 200 for more than 72 hours. On the evening of December 7 the index was 253 according to Beijing's authorities. Under a red alert half of the city's cars are ordered off the streets through a temporary alternate-day travel scheme based on the cars' license plate numbers. Only cars with even-numbered license plates were allowed on the roads during the first day of the restriction.[54][55] Electric cars are not subject to the driving restriction, as a government incentive to promote the use of cleaner vehicles.[56]
According to the
On 16 December 2016, Beijing authorities declared a five-day pollution “red alert” due to a heavy pollution event. Among other measures, about half the cars were restricted through a temporary alternate-day travel scheme, and older and “dirty” high-emissions vehicles were forbidden to circulate. Public transport services in the city were increased, with about 3,600 buses on duty. The Ministry of Environmental Protection reported that 21 other cities across north and central China had also declared pollution red alerts, including Tianjin, Shijiazhuang, Taiyuan, and Zhengzhou.[59][60] The red alert was lifted on 22 December 2016 as the winds cleared pollution away the night before.[61]
Italy
In December 2015, several Italian cities implemented temporary driving restrictions due to severe air pollution levels. The restrictions were issued in Rome, Milan and other cities in the Lombardy region, including Pavia, Buccinasco, Cesano Boscone, Cernusco sul Naviglio, Bresso, Cinisello Balsamo, Cormano, Corsico, Cusano Milanino, Paderno Dugnano and Sesto San Giovanni.[62][63] Italy had the most pollution-related deaths in Europe in 2012. Over 84,000 people in the country died prematurely owing to bad air quality, according to the European Environment Agency (EEA).[62]
Milan
Milan was named as Europe's most polluted city in 2008 and remains among the worst on the continent. City officials have limited traffic on several occasions since 2007 to curb bad air quality.[62] Due to record high air pollution levels, Milanese authorities ban cars, motorcycles and scooters for six hours a day, between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. for three days during the last week of December 2015. Local authorities introduced a special "anti-smog" all-day public transport ticket for €1.50 (~US$1.65).[62][63][64] Neighboring towns and municipalities in the Lombardy region, including Pavia, Cinisello Balsamo, Paderno Dugnano, and Sesto San Giovanni, also implemented the temporary driving restriction.[63] Electric vehicles and carsharing cars are exempted from the ban.[63][65]
Rome
An alternate-day travel scheme was implemented in Rome to curb severe air pollution in the city, which has high concentrations of
Oslo
In January 2017 a combination of cold, still winter weather and poor air quality prompted Oslo city authorities to ban diesel-powered cars from municipal roads to combat rising air pollution for at least two days. The ban did not apply on the national motorways. This was the first time ever Oslo implemented a ban of this type after the city council agreed on the use of such a measure in February 2016. The diesel ban went into effect from 6 a.m. until 10 p.m on 17 January 2017, and motorists violating the ban were fined 1,500 kroner (~ US$180).[66][67] The temporary ban scheduled for 18 January was lifted after officials said the weather forecast indicated that higher altitude winds would clear the air.[68]
The restriction did not apply to heavy vehicles with
Paris
On March 17, 2014, a partial driving restriction was imposed in
Another peak in air pollution affected Paris and Northern France in mid March 2015. The
In early December 2016, Paris and its surrounding region suffered for a week the longest and most intense winter pollution episode in 10 years.[77] A driving restriction went into effect in Paris and 22 surrounding towns for four days, from Tuesday 6 to Friday 9, due to the persistence of pollution of fine particles and nitrogen dioxide. The restriction was extended for the first time in the cities of Villeurbanne and Lyon on Friday December 9. This was the fourth time in twenty years that alternating traffic is implemented in the capital, but the first time it is maintained for several days in a row.[78][79][80]
In May 2016, the city of Paris launched a scheme called "Paris Respire" (literally "Paris breathes") as part of which certain areas of the city are closed to vehicular traffic on Sundays and public holidays.[81][82]
New Delhi
According to the World Health Organization, in 2014, New Delhi had the most polluted air of about 1,600 cities the organization tracked around the world. According to India's Central Pollution Control Board, the city's air pollution had been in the severe category on nearly three-quarter of the days in November 2015. The Delhi High Court asked the government to take action to curb air pollution on 30 November 2015.[83]
In an attempt to mitigate severe air pollution in New Delhi, which gets worst during the winter, a temporary alternate-day travel scheme for cars using the odd- and even-numbered license plates system was announced by Delhi government in December 2015. In addition, trucks were allowed to enter India's capital only after 11 p.m., two hours later than the existing restriction.[83] Almost 9 million vehicles are registered in Delhi.[84] The driving restriction scheme went into effect as a trial for an initial period of 15 days, from 1 to 15 January 2016. The restriction was in force from 8 a.m. till 8 p.m., and traffic was not restricted on Sundays. The scheme was expected to take more than a million private cars off the road every day.[85][86]
Public transportation service was increased during the restriction period.[83] A total of 27 exemptions to the restriction were allowed by the government, including all motorcycles, benefiting more than 5 million motorcyclists, all female drivers traveling alone, to ensure women's security, and several categories of official vehicles, including those of high-ranking officials. During the first day of the restriction there was acceptance by the general population.[84][86]
A petition was filed in the Delhi High Court against the government in order to stop the implementation of the restriction driving scheme. On 9 December 2015, the Court decided to put on hold the analysis of the petition until more details of the scheme are defined by the government, and considering that no official notification has been issued by a public agency. A hearing was scheduled for December 23 for further analysis.[87] The most contested exemption is the one for female drivers, and a legal petition was filed. A court had to decide whether it is discriminatory to allow women to drive around Delhi while some of males will be forced to leave their vehicles at home.[86]
On 16 December 2015, the
Summer Olympics
Beijing 2008
On July 20, 2008,
A pilot test was conducted in August 2007 for four days, restricting driving for a third of Beijing's fleet, some 1.3 million vehicles.
Post-Olympics permanent rule
The driving restriction during the Olympics was so successful in cleaning the air and relieving traffic congestion, that a modified version of the scheme was made permanent afterward in October 2008, now banning 20% of the vehicles on a given weekday instead of half the vehicles as implemented during the Olympics.[97][98] Also a ban on heavy trucks from entering the city during the day was implemented, and the oldest most polluting automobiles, called "yellow-label" cars, after the sticker fixed to their windshields, are banned from entering the city center. In July 2009 a nationwide car scrappage program was implemented offering rebates for trade in old heavy polluting cars and trucks for new ones.[97] As of June 2016[update], in addition to Beijing, another 11 Chinese cities have similar restriction schemes in place.[99]
London 2012
This section needs to be updated.(March 2014) |
The
Similar management and rationing policies
Congestion pricing
Transport economists consider road space rationing a variation of road pricing, and an alternative to congestion pricing, but road space rationing is considered more equitable by some, as the restrictions force all drivers to reduce auto travel, while congestion pricing restrains less those who can afford paying the congestion charge. Nevertheless, high-income users can often avoid the restrictions by owning a second car.[104] Moreover, congestion pricing (unlike rationing) acts "to allocate a scarce resource to its most valuable use, as evinced by users' willingness to pay for the resource". While some "opponents of congestion pricing fear that tolled roads will be used only by people with high income. But preliminary evidence suggests that the new toll lanes in California are used by people of all income groups. The ability to get somewhere fast and reliably is valued in a variety of circumstances. Not everyone will need or want to incur a toll on a daily basis, but on occasions when getting somewhere quickly is necessary, the option of paying to save time is valuable to people at all income levels."[105]
Mobility rights or congestion credits
A more recent idea for automobile travel restrictions, proposed by some transport economists
See also
- Car-Free Days
- Common good (economics)
- Commons dilemma
- Congestion pricing
- Downs–Thomson paradox
- Externalities
- Induced demand
- Jevons paradox
- Lewis–Mogridge position
- Low-emission zone
- Odd-even rationing
- Public good
- Rationing
- Road pricing
- Traffic calming
- Tragedy of the Commons
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{{cite web}}
:|author=
has generic name (help) See Equity Impacts section - ^ Holtz-Eakin, Douglas (2003-05-06). "Congestion Pricing for Highways (Testimony before the Joint Economic Committee, U.S. Congress)". Congressional Budget Office. Archived from the original on 2008-02-14. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
- S2CID 153913288.
- .
External links
- Online TDM Encyclopedia - Vehicle restrictions
- The effect of transport policies on car use: Evidence from Latin American cities, Journal of Public Economics, November 2013
- Will a Driving Restriction Policy Reduce Car Trips? - A Case Study of Beijing, China, Environment for Development, September 2013.