Robert II of Scotland
Robert II | |
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King of Scots | |
Reign | 22 February 1371 – 19 April 1390[1] |
Coronation | 26 March 1371 |
Predecessor | David II |
Successor | Robert III |
Regents | See list
|
Born | 2 March 1316 Paisley Abbey, Renfrewshire, Scotland |
Died | 19 April 1390 (aged 74) Dundonald Castle, Ayrshire, Scotland |
Burial | |
Spouses | |
Issue more... |
|
Stewart | |
Father | Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland |
Mother | Marjorie Bruce |
Robert II (2 March 1316 – 19 April 1390) was
Edward Balliol, son of King John Balliol—assisted by the English and those Scottish nobles who Robert I had disinherited—invaded Scotland inflicting heavy defeats on the Bruce party on 11 August 1332 at Dupplin Moor and Halidon Hill on 19 July 1333. Robert, who had fought at Halidon, joined his uncle David in refuge in Dumbarton Castle. David escaped to France in 1334 and Parliament, still functioning, appointed Robert and John Randolph, 3rd Earl of Moray, as joint guardians of the kingdom. The English captured Randolph in July 1335 and in the same year, Robert submitted to Balliol bringing about the removal of his guardianship. His former position was reinstated in 1338 until David returned from France in June 1341. Hostilities continued and Robert was with David at the Neville's Cross on 17 October 1346 and either escaped or fled the field. David, however, was captured and remained a prisoner until he was ransomed in October 1357.
Robert married
Heir presumptive
Robert Stewart, born in 1316, was the only child of King
High Steward of Scotland
Renewed war for independence
The first war of independence began in the reign of King
David Bruce, aged five, became king on 7 June 1329 after the death of his father Robert. Walter the Steward had died earlier on 9 April 1327,
In May 1334, the situation looked dire for the house of Bruce and David II gained safety in France.[12] Robert set about winning back his lands in the west of Scotland.[11] Strathbogie came over to the Bruce interest after disagreements with his fellow 'disinherited' but his fierce opposition to Randolph came to a head at a Parliament held at Dairsie Castle in early 1335 when Strathbogie received the support of Robert.[15] Strathbogie once again changed sides submitting to the English king in August and was made Warden of Scotland. Robert likely submitted to Edward in September 1335 relinquishing the guardianship by early December.[16]
The Bruce resistance to Balliol may have been verging on collapse in 1335 but a turn-round in its fortunes began with the appearance of Sir Andrew Moray of Bothwell as a potent war leader at the Battle of Culblean.[17] Moray had been captured in 1332, ransomed himself in 1334, and immediately sped north to lay siege to Dundarg Castle in Buchan held by Sir Henry de Beaumont, with the castle falling on 23 December 1334.[18] Moray was appointed guardian at Dunfermline during the winter of 1335–36 while besieging Cupar Castle in Fife. He died at his castle in Avoch in 1338 and Robert resumed the guardianship.[19] Murray's campaign put an end to any chance of Edward III having full lasting control over the south of Scotland and Edward's failure in the six-month siege of Dunbar Castle confirmed this.[20] Balliol lost many of his major supporters to the Bruce side and the main English garrisons began to fall to the Scots—Cupar in the spring or summer of 1339, Perth taken by the combined armies of Sir William Douglas, Lord of Liddesdale, Robert Stewart and Maurice Murray of Drumsargard in June 1339.[21] Edinburgh was taken by stratagem by William Douglas of Liddesdale in April 1341.[22]
John Randolph was released from English custody in a prisoner exchange in 1341 and visited David II in Normandy before returning to Scotland. Just as Randolph was a favourite of the king, David II mistrusted Robert Stewart with his powerful positions of heir presumptive and guardian of Scotland.[23] At the beginning of June 1341, the kingdom appeared sufficiently stable to allow the king to return to a land where his nobles, while fighting for the Bruce cause, had considerably increased their own power bases.[24] On 17 October 1346, Robert accompanied David into battle at Neville's Cross, where many Scottish nobles including Randolph, died—David II was wounded and captured while Robert and Patrick, earl of March had apparently fled the field.[11]
King David's captivity
Petitions to the Pope, 1342–1419 [25]
The kings of France and Scotland, bishops William of St. Andrews, William of Glasgow, William of Aberdeen, Richard of Dunkeld, Martin of Argyle, Adam of Brechin, and Maurice of Dunblane. Signification that although Elizabeth Mor and Isabella Boutellier, noble damsels of the diocese of Glasgow, are related in the third and fourth degrees of kindred, Robert Steward of Scotland, lord of Stragrifis, in the diocese of Glasgow, the king's nephew, carnally knew first Isabella, and afterwards, in ignorance of their kindred, Elizabeth, who was herself related to Robert in the fourth degree of kindred, living with her for some time and having many children of both sexes by her; the above king and bishops therefore pray the pope that for the sake of the said offspring, who are fair to behold (aspectibus gratiose), to grant a dispensation to Robert and Elizabeth to intermarry, and to declare their offspring legitimate.
To be granted by the diocesan, at whose discretion one or more chapelries are to be founded by Robert.
Avignon, 10 Kal. Dec. 1347
With the king now imprisoned in England and Randolph dead, the guardianship once again fell to Robert.[26] In 1347 he took the important step of ensuring the legitimation of his four sons, John, Earl of Carrick (the future King Robert III), Walter, Lord of Fife (d. 1362), Robert (the future Duke of Albany) and Alexander, Lord of Badenoch (and future Earl of Buchan), and six daughters by petitioning Pope Clement VI to allow a canon law marriage to Elizabeth Mure.[27]
Even though an English prisoner, David retained influence in Scotland and Robert had his guardianship removed by parliament and given jointly to the earls of Mar and Ross and the lord of Douglas—this did not last and Robert was once again appointed guardian by the Parliament of February 1352. ... the Scots refused to have their King unless he entirely renounced the influence of the English, and similarly refused to submit themselves to them. And they warned him that they would neither ransom him nor allow him to be ransomed unless he pardoned them for all their acts and injuries that they had done, and all the offences that they had committed during the time of captivity, and he should give them security for that, or otherwise they threatened to choose another king to rule them. By 1354 ongoing negotiations for the king's release reached the stage where a proposal of a straight ransom payment of 90,000 marks to be repaid over nine years, guaranteed by the provision of 20 high-ranking hostages, was agreed upon—this understanding was destroyed by Robert when he bound the Scots to a French action against the English in 1355.[31] The capture of Berwick together with the presence of the French on English soil jolted Edward III into moving against the Scots—in January 1356 Edward led his forces into the south-east of Scotland and burned Edinburgh and Haddington and much of the Lothians in a campaign that became known as the 'Burnt Candlemas'.[32] After Edward's victory over France in September, the Scots resumed negotiations for David's release ending in October 1357 with the Treaty of Berwick. Its terms were that in turn for David's freedom, a ransom of 100,000 marks would be paid in annual instalments over ten years—only the first two payments were completed initially and nothing further until 1366.[33] This failure to honour the conditions of the Berwick treaty allowed Edward to continue to press for a Plantagenet successor to David—terms that were rejected by the Scottish Council and probably by Robert himself.[34] This may have been the cause of a brief rebellion in 1363 by Robert and the earls of Douglas and March.[35] Later French inducements could not bring David to their aid and the country remained at peace with England during his reign.[36]
King of Scots
Consolidation of Stewart power and personal rule
David died childless on 22 February 1371 and was succeeded by Robert II.[37] David was buried at Holyrood Abbey almost immediately but an armed protest by William, Earl of Douglas delayed Robert II's coronation until 26 March 1371.[38] The reasons for the incident remain unclear but may have involved a dispute regarding Robert's right of succession,[39] or may have been directed against George Dunbar, Earl of March (also known as Earl of Dunbar) and the southern justiciar, Robert Erskine.[40] It was resolved by Robert giving his daughter Isabella in marriage to Douglas's son, James and with Douglas replacing Erskine as justiciar south of the Forth.[41] Robert's accession did affect some others who held offices from David II. In particular, George Dunbar's brother John Dunbar, the Lord of Fife who lost his claim on Fife and Sir Robert Erskine's son, Sir Thomas Erskine who lost control of Edinburgh Castle.[42]
The Stewarts greatly increased their holdings in the west, in Atholl, and in the far north: the earldoms of
In 1373, Robert ensured the future security of the Stewart dynasty by having Parliament pass entailments regarding the succession. At this time, none of his sons had heirs so it became necessary for a system to be devised to define precisely the circumstances in which each of his sons could inherit the crown—none of this would take precedence over normal succession by primogeniture.[44][45] By 1375, the king had commissioned John Barbour to write the poem, The Brus, a history intended to bolster the public image of the Stewarts as the genuine heirs of Robert I. It described the patriotic acts of both Sir James, the Black Douglas and Walter the Steward, the king's father, in their support of Bruce.[43] Robert's rule during the 1370s saw the country's finances stabilised and greatly improved due in part to the flourishing wool trade, reduced calls on the public purse and the halting of his predecessor's ransom money on the death of Edward III of England.[11] Robert—unlike David II whose kingship was predominantly Lothian and therefore lowland based—did not restrict his attention to one sector of his kingdom but frequently visited the more remote areas of the north and west among his Gaelic lords.[46]
Robert ruled over a country that continued to have English enclaves within its borders and Scots who gave their allegiance to the king of England—the important castles of Berwick, Jedburgh, Lochmaben and Roxburgh had English garrisons and controlled southern Berwickshire, Teviotdale and large areas in Annandale and Tweeddale.[47] In June 1371, Robert agreed to a defensive treaty with the French, and although there were no outright hostilities during 1372, the English garrisons were reinforced and placed under an increased state of vigilance.[48] Attacks on the English-held zones, with the near-certain backing of Robert, began in 1373 and accelerated in the years 1375–77. This indicated that a central decision had probably been taken for the escalation of conflict rather than the previous small-scale marauding attacks by the border barons.[49] In 1376, the Earl of March successfully recovered Annandale, but then found himself constrained by the Bruges Anglo-French truce.[50]
In his dealings with Edward III, Robert blamed his border magnates for the escalating attacks on the English zones; regardless, the Scots retained the recaptured lands, often portioned out among minor lords, to secure their interest in preventing English re-possession.
Loss of authority and death
Robert's son, John, Earl of Carrick, had become the foremost Stewart magnate south of the Forth just as Alexander, Earl of Buchan was in the north.[58] Alexander's activities and methods of royal administration, enforced by Gaelic mercenaries, drew criticism from northern earls and bishops and his younger half-brother David, Earl of Strathearn. These complaints damaged the king's standing within the Council leading to criticism of his ability to curb Buchan's activities.[59] Robert's differences with the Carrick affinity regarding the conduct of the war and his continued failure or unwillingness to deal with Buchan in the north led to the political convulsion of November 1384 when the Council removed the king's authority to govern and appointed Carrick as lieutenant of the kingdom—a coup d'état had taken place.[43][60] With Robert sidelined, there was now no impediment in the way of war. In June 1385, a force of 1200 French soldiers joined the Scots in a campaign that involved the Earl of Douglas and two of Robert's sons, John, Earl of Carrick and Robert, Earl of Fife.[61] The skirmishes saw small gains but a quarrel between the French and Scottish commanders saw the abandonment of an attack on the important castle of Roxburgh.[62]
The victory of the Scots over the English at the
Historiography
The reign of Robert II has undergone a re-appraisal since the works of historians Gordon Donaldson (1967) and Ranald Nicholson (1974). Donaldson admitted to a lack of knowledge (at the time he was writing) regarding Robert's reign and accepts that the early chroniclers writing near his reign found little to criticise.[67] Robert's career before and after he succeeded to the throne is described by Donaldson as "to say the least, undistinguished, and his reign did nothing to add lustre to it."[68] Donaldson goes further and debates the legality of the canon law marriage of Robert and Elizabeth Mure following the papal dispensation, but acknowledges that the Acts of Succession in 1371 and 1372, although sealing the matter in the eyes of Parliament, did not end the generational feud of the descendants of Elizabeth Mure and Euphemia Ross.[69] Robert's earlier participation in combat at the battles of Halidon and Neville's Cross, according to Donaldson, had made him wary of sanctioning military expeditions against the English and that any such actions by his barons were concealed from him.[70] Similarly, Nicholson described Robert's reign as deficient and that his lack of the skills of governance led to internal strife. Nicholson asserts that the Earl of Douglas was bought off following his armed demonstration just before Robert's coronation, and associates this with the doubt surrounding the legitimacy of Robert's sons with Elizabeth Mure.[71]
In contrast, the historians Stephen Boardman (2007), Alexander Grant (1984 & 1992) and Michael Lynch (1992) give a more even-handed appraisal of Robert II's life.[71] Modern historians show a kingdom that had become wealthier and more stable, particularly during the first decade of his rule.[11] Boardman explains that Robert II was subjected to negative propaganda while he was High Steward—David II's followers denigrated his conduct during his lieutenancies and described them as "tyranny"—and again later as King when the supporters of his son John, Earl of Carrick said that Robert was a king lacking drive and accomplishments, weighed down by age and unfit to govern.[72][73] Robert II's association with Gaelic Scotland also drew criticism. He grew up in his ancestral lands in the west and was completely at ease with the Gaelic language and culture and possessed a potent relationship with the Gaelic lords in the Hebrides, upper Perthshire and Argyll. Throughout his reign, Robert spent long periods in his Gaelic heartlands and complaints at the time in Lowland Scotland seem to have been influenced by the view that the king was too much involved in Gaelic concerns.[74] Boardman also asserts that much of the negative views held of Robert II find their origins in the writings of the French chronicler Jean Froissart who recorded that '[the king] had red bleared eyes, of the colour of sandalwood, which clearly showed that he was no valiant man, but one who would remain at home than march to the field'.[75] Contrary to Froissart's view, the early Scottish chroniclers—Andrew of Wyntoun and Walter Bower (who both utilised a source that was nearly contemporary with Robert II)—and later 15th- and 16th-century Scottish chroniclers and poets showed 'Robert II as a Scottish patriotic hero, a defender of the integrity of the Scottish kingdom, and as the direct heir to Robert I'.[76]
Grant (1992) acknowledges that Robert II's reign in terms of foreign and domestic policy was "not so unsuccessful".[77] As far as William, Earl of Douglas's reaction was concerned when he staged an armed demonstration before Robert's coronation, Grant does not hold to the view that Douglas was in some way demonstrating against Robert's legitimate right to the throne, but more an assertion that royal patronage should not continue as in the time of David II. Grant also advocates that the demonstration was aimed at father and son Robert and Thomas Erskine, who held the castles of Edinburgh, Stirling and Dumbarton from Robert's predecessor.[77] Grant seriously called into question the dependability of Froissart's writings as an effective source for Robert II's reign.[78] Influential magnate coalitions headed by Carrick, having undermined the king's position, manipulated the Council of November 1384 to remove Robert II from any real power.[79] Grant gives little weight to the asserted senility of Robert and suggests that the deposition of Carrick in 1388, and then the resolution to join the Anglo-French truce of 1389, were both at the instigation of Robert II.[80] Yet authority was not handed back to Robert II but to Carrick's younger brother, Robert, earl of Fife; this once again saw the king at the disposition of one of his sons.[81] Despite this, the now unknown source whom both Wyntoun and Bower relied on made the point that Fife deferred to his father on affairs of state emphasising the difference in styles in the guardianships of his two sons.[82]
Michael Lynch points out that Robert II's reign from 1371 until the lieutenancy of Carrick in 1384 had been one exemplified by continued prosperity and stability—a time which Abbot Bower described as a period of "tranquillity, prosperity and peace".[83] Lynch suggests that the troubles of the 1450s between James II and the Douglases (which some historians have interpreted as the legacy of Robert II's policy of encouraging powerful lordships), was a continuation of David II's build-up of local lords in the Marches and Galloway—Robert was satisfied with government to leave alone the Douglas and the Stewart earls in their fiefdoms.[84] The weakening of government if anything, Lynch suggests, came not before the 1384 coup but after it, even though the coup had at its root Robert II's favouring of his third son, Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan (known as "the Wolf of Badenoch").[85]
Marriages and issue
In 1336, he first married Elizabeth Mure (died 1355), daughter of Sir Adam Mure of Rowallan. The marriage was criticised for being uncanonical, so he remarried her in 1349 after receiving a papal dispensation in 1347.[86]
From this union, ten children reached adulthood:[87]
- John (died 1406), who became King of Scotland as Robert III, married Anabella Drummond.
- Walter (died in 1362), husband of Isabella MacDuff, Countess of Fife.
- Robert, Earl of Fife and from 1398 Duke of Albany (died 1420), married in 1361 Margaret Graham, Countess of Menteith, and his second wife in 1381 Muriella Keith (died in 1449).
- Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan (died 1405), nicknamed "the Wolf of Badenoch", married in 1382 to Euphemia of Ross.
- Margaret, married John of Islay, Lord of the Isles.
- Marjorie, married John Dunbar, Earl of Moray, then Sir Alexander Keith.
- Elizabeth, married Thomas de la Hay, Lord High Constable of Scotland.
- Isabel (died 1410), married James Douglas, 2nd Earl of Douglas (died in 1388), followed in 1389 by John Edmonstone of that Ilk.
- Johanna (Jean), married Sir John Keith (died 1375), then John Lyon, Lord of Glamis(died 1383) and, finally, Sir James Sandilands.
- Katherine, married Sir Robert Logan of Grugar and Restalrig, Lord High Admiral of Scotland.
In 1355, Robert married his second wife Euphemia de Ross (died 1387), daughter of Hugh, Earl of Ross. They had four children:[87]
- David Stewart, Earl of Strathearn, born about 1356 and died in 1389.
- Walter Stewart, Earl of Atholl, born about 1360, beheaded at Edinburgh in 1437 for being involved in the assassination of King James I.
- Elizabeth, who married in 1380 David Lindsay, 1st Earl of Crawford.
- Egidia, who married in 1387 William Douglas of Nithsdale.
King Robert II also had many illegitimate children with several mistresses, including four sons with his favourite Mariota de Cardeny, daughter of Sir John Cardeny, and widow of Alexander Mac Naugthon:
- Alexander Stewart, of Inverlunan
- Sir John Stewart, of Cardeny
- James Stewart, of Abernethy and Kinfauna
- Walter Stewart
By Moira Leitch (according to tradition):
- Sir John Stewart, Sheriff of Bute (1360 – 1445/9), ancestor of the Marquesses of Bute[88][89]
Other issue born by unknown women:[88]
- John Stewart, Lord of Burley (killed 1425)
- Alexander Stewart, canon of Glasgow
- Sir Alexander Stewart of Inverlunan
- Thomas Stewart, Archdeacon of St Andrews, Dean of Dunkeld
- James Stewart of Kinfauns
- Walter Stewart
- Maria or Mary Stewart, wife of Sir John de Danielstoun and mother of Sir Robert de Danielstoun of that Ilk (ancestor of Cunningham of Kilmaurs, and Maxwell of Calderwood)[90]
Ancestry
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Fictional portrayals
Robert II has been depicted in historical novels. They include:
- The Three Perils of Man; or, War, women, and witchcraft (1822) by James Hogg. The tale takes place in the reign of Robert II whose "country enjoyed happiness and peace, all save a part adjoining to the borders of England." Part of the action takes place at Linlithgow Palace, where Robert promises to marry his daughter Margaret Stewart "to the knight who shall take that castle of Roxburgh out of the hands of the English". With Margaret adding her own terms, that "in case of his attempting and failing in the undertaking, he shall forfeit all his lands, castles, towns, and towers to me." In the absence of volunteers, Margaret vows to take the Castle herself, defeating Lord Musgrave and his mistress Jane Howard.[97]
- The Lords of Misrule (1976) by Nigel Tranter. It covers events from c. 1388 to 1390 and depicts the last years of Robert II and the rise of Robert III of Scotland to the throne. As the elderly king has grown "feeble, weary and half-blind", his sons, daughters and other nobles campaign for power. An ungoverned Scotland is ravaged by their conflicts. Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany, and Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan, are prominently featured.[98]
- Courting Favour (2000) by Nigel Tranter. Follows the career of John Dunbar, Earl of Moray in the courts of David II of Scotland and Robert II. John is a son-in-law to the latter and serves him as a diplomat.[99]
Notes
- ^ Fryde, et al., Handbook of British Chronology, p. 59
- ^ a b Oram, et al., Kings & Queens, p. 123
- ^ a b c Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 3
- ^ Bradbury, Companion to Medieval Warfare, p. 222
- ^ Brown & Tanner, History of Scottish Parliament, pp. 70–71
- ^ Oram, et al., Kings and Queens of Scotland, p. 124
- ^ Watson, Power of the Past, p. 29
- ^ a b Watson, Independence, Wars of
- ^ a b Oram, et al., Kings & Queens, p. 99
- ^ Weir, Alison, Britain's Royal Families, p. 214
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Boardman, Robert II, ODNB
- ^ a b c Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 4
- ^ 'The disinherited'—those nobles or their descendants who had fought for the English but had not entered into Robert I's peace and had their property confiscated and distributed to the Bruce supporters.
- ^ Grant & Stringer, Medieval Scotland, p. 227
- ^ Grant & Stringer, Medieval Scotland pp. 225–226
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 6
- ^ Grant & Stringer, Medieval Scotland p. 231
- ^ Duncan, Andrew Murray, ODNB
- ^ Grant & Stringer, Medieval Scotland p. 233
- ^ Brown, The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371, pp. 241–242
- ^ Penman, Michael (2004). David II. East Linton, Scotland: Tuckwell Press Ltd. p. 59.
- ^ Grant & Stringer, Medieval Scotland p. 234
- ^ Brown, The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371, p. 244
- ^ Brown, The Wars of Scotland, 1214–1371, pp. 241–243
- ^ "Volume XIII: 6 Clement VI", Petitions to the Pope: 1342–1419 (1896), pp. 124–126. Date accessed: 04 April 2009. (10 Kal. Dec. 1347 – 22 November 1347)
- ^ Sadler, Border Fury, p. 228
- ^ Brown & Tanner, History of Scottish Parliament, footnote 34, p. 85
- ^ Brown & Tanner, History of Scottish Parliament, pp. 85–86
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, pp. 9–10
- ^ Brown & Tanner, History of Scottish Parliament, pp. 86–87
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 10
- ^ Brown, The Wars of Scotland, p. 253
- ^ Rogers, The Wars of Edward III, pp. 218–219
- ^ Rogers, The Wars of Edward III, p. 219
- ^ Barrell, Medieval Scotland, p. 130
- ^ Rogers, The Wars of Edward III, p. 220
- ^ Morley, Henry (1890). English Writers: An Attempt Towards a History of English Literature. Cassell, limited. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 40
- ^ Brown & Tanner, History of Scottish Parliament pp. 102–105
- ^ Grant in Jones, et al.,New Cambridge History, p. 360
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 45
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, pp. 39, 53
- ^ a b c d e f Oram, et al., Kings & Queens, p. 126
- ^ Barrell, Medieval Scotland, pp. 141–142
- ^ The Records of the Parliaments of Scotland to 1707, K.M. Brown et al eds (St Andrews, 2007–2012), 1373/3. [1] Date accessed: 21 May 2012
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, pp. 94–95
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 108
- ^ Sadler, Border Fury, p. 258
- ^ Tuck & Goodman, War and Border Societies, pp. 38–39
- ^ Sadler, Border Fury, p. 260
- ^ Sadler, Border Fury, pp. 259–260
- ^ Tuck & Goodman, War and Border Societies, p. 40
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 118
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, pp. 118–119
- ^ a b Tuck & Goodman, War and Border Societies, p. 42
- ^ a b Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, pp. 120–121
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 123
- ^ Barrell, Medieval Scotland, pp. 141–142
- ^ For an account of the background to Buchan's activities in the north of Scotland and the context in which he operated see Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, pp. 83–89
- ^ Grant in Jones, et al., New Cambridge History, pp. 360–361
- ^ Oram et al., Kings and Queens, p. 127
- ^ Goodman & Tuck, War and Border Societies, p. 45
- ^ a b Goodman & Tuck, War and Border Societies, p. 51
- ^ a b Grant in Jones, et al., New Cambridge History p. 361
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 171
- ^ The date of Robert II's death and the disputed date of Robert II's burial and the reasons for the delay in Robert III's coronation are explained by Dauvit Broun in Brown & Tanner, History of Scottish Parliament pp. 112–116
- ^ Donaldson, Scottish Kings, p. 33
- ^ Donaldson, Scottish Kings, p. 39
- ^ Donaldson, Scottish Kings, p. 37
- ^ Donaldson, Scottish Kings, pp. 39–40
- ^ a b Pearson, Robert II
- ^ Grant in Jones, et al.,New Cambridge History, p. 359
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, pp. 123–125 & 171–172
- ^ Boardman in Broun & MacGregor, The Great Ill-Will of the Lowlander, p. 84
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, p. 137
- ^ Boardman, Early Stewart Kings, pp. 108, 125 (footnote 2)
- ^ a b Grant, Independence and Nationhood, P. 178
- ^ Tuck & Goodman, War and Border Societies, pp. 30–65
- ^ Oram et al., Kings and Queens, pp. 126–127
- ^ Grant, Independence and Nationhood, pp. 180–181
- ^ Oram et al., Kings and Queens, p. 128
- ^ Brown & Tanner, History of Scottish Parliament, pp. 110–112
- ^ Lynch, Scotland: A new History, p. 138
- ^ Lynch, Scotland: A new History, pp. 138–139
- ^ Lynch, Scotland: A new History, p. 139
- ^ Weir, Britain's Royal Families, p. 216
- ^ a b c d "The Scottish Royal Dynasties 842–1625" (PDF). The official website of the British Monarchy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 December 2010. Retrieved 19 February 2018.
- ^ ISBN 9781446449110.
- ^ Douglas, Robert (1764). The Peerage of Scotland.
- ^ John P. Ravilious, ‘ "Nephew of the Duke": the Danielstons of that Ilk, and a hitherto unknown daughter of Robert II, King of Scots,’ The Scottish Genealogist, Vol. LIV, No. 3, September 2007, pp. 134–137. cf. also John P. Ravilious, ‘Maria Stewart, illegitimate daughter of Robert II, King of Scots’ The Scottish Genealogist, Vol. LVI, No. 1, March 2009, pp. 29–30.
- ^ a b Paul, The Scots Peerage, pp. 13–14.
- ^ a b Paul, The Scots Peerage, p. 13.
- ^ a b Archer, Thomas Andrew (1886). Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 7. London: Smith, Elder & Co. . In
- ^ a b Maxwell, Robert the Bruce, p. ix
- ^ Paton, Henry (1893). Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 36. London: Smith, Elder & Co. . In
- ^ "Isabella of Mar". The Stewart Society. Retrieved 15 February 2019.
- ^ Hogg, pp. 4–10
- ^ "Lords of Misrule", synopsis from the bookjacket
- ^ "Tranter first edition books, publication timeline", part IV
References
- Barrell, Andrew D. M. (2000), Medieval Scotland, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-58602-X
- ISBN 978-1-904607-68-7
- Boardman, S. I. (May 2006). "Robert II". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/23713. Retrieved 19 October 2008. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- OCLC 540108870
- Brown, Keith M.; Tanner, Roland (2008), The History of the Scottish Parliament: Parliament and Politics In Scotland 1235–1560, vol. 1, Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-1485-1
- ISBN 0-7486-1238-6
- Burns, Charles, ed. (1976), Calendar of Papal Letters to Scotland of Clement VII of Avignon, 1378–1394, Scottish History Society, ISBN 978-0-9500260-8-4
- ISBN 0-7486-1420-6
- Donaldson, Gordon (1967), Scottish Kings, London: Batsford, 153229
- doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/19590. Retrieved 23 October 2008. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
- Fryde, E. B.; ISBN 0-521-56350-X
- Grant, Alexander (1984), Independence and Nationhood, The New History of Scotland, London: Edward Arnold (Publishers, Ltd), ISBN 0-7131-6309-7
- ISBN 0-415-08021-5
- Grant, Alexander; Stringer, Keith, eds. (1998), "Scotland without a King, 1329–1341, Bruce Webster", Medieval Scotland: Crown,Lordship and Community, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 0-7486-1110-X
- Hogg, James (1822), The Three Perils of Man; or, War, women, and witchcraft
- ISBN 0-521-36290-3
- ISBN 0-7126-9893-0
- Maxwell, Herbert (1897). Robert the Bruce and the struggle for Scottish independence. G.P. Putnam's sons.
- Nicholson, Ranald (1974), Scotland: The Later Middle Ages, The Edinburgh History of Scotland, Vol. 2, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, ISBN 0-05-002038-2
- Oram, Richard, ed. (2001), "The House of Stewart, 1371–1625, Michael Penman", The Kings & Queens of Scotland, Stroud, Gloustershire: Tempus Publishing Ltd, ISBN 0-7524-1991-9
- Paul, James Balfour, ed. (1904), The Scots Peerage, vol. I, Edinburgh: David Douglas
- Pearson, M. J., Robert II: 1316–1390, Reader's Guide to British History (online ed.), Routledge, retrieved 12 January 2010
- ISBN 0-85115-646-0
- Sadler, John (2006), Border Fury: England and Scotland at War 1296–1568, Longman, ISBN 1-4058-4022-6
- Tuck, Anthony; Goodman, Anthony, eds. (1992), "Otterburn from the Scottish point of View,Alexander Grant", War and Border Societies in the Middle Ages (1st ed.), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-08021-5
- Watson, Fiona (2007), "Independence, Wars of", The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. ed.), Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, retrieved 18 May 2012
- Webster, Bruce (2004). "David II". required.)
- Webster, Bruce (2004). "Balliol, Edward (b. in or after 1281, d. 1364)". required.)
- Weir, Alison (1989), Britain's Royal Family: A Complete Genealogy, London: The Bodley Head, ISBN 0-370-31310-0
External links
- Robert II at the official website of the British monarchy
- Portraits of Robert II of Scotland at the National Portrait Gallery, London