Robert Moses
Robert Moses | |
---|---|
Preceded by | Position established |
Succeeded by | Newbold Morris |
Personal details | |
Born | Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx, New York | December 18, 1888
Political party | Republican[1] |
Spouses |
|
Children | 2 |
Education | |
Robert Moses (December 18, 1888 – July 29, 1981) was an American urban planner and public official who worked in the New York metropolitan area during the early to mid-20th century. Moses is regarded as one of the most powerful and influential people in the history of New York City and New York State. The grand scale of his infrastructure projects and his philosophy of urban development influenced a generation of engineers, architects, and urban planners across the United States.[2]
Never elected to any office, Moses held various positions throughout his more-than-40-year career. He held as many as 12 titles at once, including
Moses's projects transformed the New York area and revolutionized the way cities in the U.S. were designed and built. As Long Island State Park Commissioner, Moses oversaw the construction of Jones Beach State Park, the most-visited public beach in the United States,[4] and was the primary architect of the New York State Parkway System. As head of the Triborough Bridge Authority, Moses had near-complete control over bridges and tunnels in New York City as well as the tolls collected from them; he built, among others, the Triborough Bridge, the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel, and the Throgs Neck Bridge, as well as several major highways. These roadways and bridges, alongside urban renewal efforts that destroyed huge swaths of tenement housing and replaced them with large public housing projects, transformed the physical fabric of New York and inspired other cities to undertake similar development endeavors.
Moses's reputation declined after the publication of Robert Caro's Pulitzer Prize-winning biography The Power Broker (1974), which cast doubt on the purported benefits of many of Moses's projects and further cast Moses as racist. In large part because of The Power Broker,[5] Moses is today considered a controversial figure in the history of New York City.
Early life and career
Moses was born in
After graduating from
Moses rose to power with Smith, who was elected as governor in 1918, and then again in 1922. With Smith's support, Moses set in motion a sweeping consolidation of the New York State government. During that period Moses began his first foray into large-scale public work initiatives, while drawing on Smith's political power to enact legislation. This helped create the new Long Island State Park Commission and the State Council of Parks.[14] In 1924, Governor Smith appointed Moses chairman of the State Council of Parks and president of the Long Island State Park Commission.[15] This centralization allowed Smith to run a government later used as a model for Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal federal government.[original research?] Moses also received numerous commissions that he carried out efficiently, such as the development of Jones Beach State Park.[citation needed] Displaying a strong command of law as well as matters of engineering, Moses became known for his skill in drafting legislation, and was called "the best bill drafter in Albany".[2] At a time when the public was accustomed to Tammany Hall corruption and incompetence, Moses was seen as a savior of government.[12]
Shortly after
Offices held
The many offices and professional titles that Moses held gave him unusually broad power to shape urban development in the New York metropolitan region. These include, according to the New York Preservation Archive Project:[17]
- Long Island State Park Commission (President, 1924–1963)
- New York State Council of Parks (Chairman, 1924–1963)
- New York Secretary of State (1927–1929)
- Bethpage State Park Authority (President, 1933–1963)
- Emergency Public Works Commission (Chairman, 1933–1934)
- Jones Beach Parkway Authority (President, 1933–1963)
- New York City Department of Parks (Commissioner, 1934–1960)
- Triborough Bridgeand Tunnel Authority (Chairman, 1934–1968)
- New York City Planning Commission (Commissioner, 1942–1960)
- New York State Power Authority (Chairman, 1954–1962)
- New York's World Fair (President, 1960–1966)
- Office of the Governor of New York (Special Advisor on Housing, 1974–1975)
Influence
During the 1920s, Moses sparred with Franklin D. Roosevelt, then head of the Taconic State Park Commission, who favored the prompt construction of a parkway through the Hudson Valley. Moses succeeded in diverting funds to his Long Island parkway projects (the Northern State Parkway, the Southern State Parkway and the Wantagh State Parkway), although the Taconic State Parkway was later completed as well.[18] Moses helped build Long Island's Meadowbrook State Parkway. It was the first fully divided limited access highway in the world.[19]
Moses was a highly influential figure in the initiation of many of the reforms that restructured New York state's government during the 1920s. A 'Reconstruction Commission' headed by Moses produced a highly influential report that provided recommendations that would largely be adopted, including the consolidation of 187 existing agencies under 18 departments, a new executive budget system, and the four-year term limit for the governorship.[20]
WPA swimming pools
During the
Eleven of these pools were to be designed concurrently and open in 1936. These comprised ten pools at Astoria Park, Betsy Head Park, Crotona Park, Hamilton Fish Park, Highbridge Park, Thomas Jefferson Park, McCarren Park, Red Hook Park, Jackie Robinson Park, and Sunset Park, as well as a standalone facility at Tompkinsville Pool.[26] Moses, along with architects Aymar Embury II and Gilmore David Clarke, created a common design for these proposed aquatic centers. Each location was to have distinct pools for diving, swimming, and wading; bleachers and viewing areas; and bathhouses with locker rooms that could be used as gymnasiums. The pools were to have several common features, such as a minimum 55-yard (50 m) length, underwater lighting, heating, filtration, and low-cost construction materials. To fit the requirement for cheap materials, each building would be built using elements of the Streamline Moderne and Classical architectural styles. The buildings would also be near "comfort stations", additional playgrounds, and spruced-up landscapes.[26][27]
Construction for some of the 11 pools began in October 1934.
Moses allegedly fought to keep African American swimmers out of his pools and beaches. One subordinate remembers Moses saying the pools should be kept a few degrees colder, allegedly because Moses believed African Americans did not like cold water.[33]
Water crossings
Triborough Bridge
Although Moses had power over the construction of all
The Triborough Bridge (later officially renamed the Robert F. Kennedy Bridge) opened in 1936, connecting the Bronx, Manhattan, and Queens via three separate spans. Language in its Authority's bond contracts and multi-year Commissioner appointments made it largely impervious to pressure from mayors and governors. While New York City and New York State were perpetually strapped for money, the bridge's toll revenues amounted to tens of millions of dollars a year. The Authority was thus able to raise hundreds of millions of dollars by selling bonds, a method also used by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey[34] to fund large public construction projects. Toll revenues rose quickly as traffic on the bridges exceeded all projections. Rather than pay off the bonds, Moses used the revenue to build other toll projects, a cycle that would feed on itself.[35]
Brooklyn–Battery link
In the late 1930s a municipal controversy raged over whether an additional vehicular link between Brooklyn and
Only a lack of a key federal approval thwarted the bridge project. President Roosevelt ordered the
This had not been the first time Moses pressed for a bridge over a tunnel. He had tried to upstage the Tunnel Authority when the
Post-war influence of urban development and projects
Moses's power increased after World War II after Mayor LaGuardia retired and a series of successors consented to almost all of his proposals. Named city "construction coordinator" in 1946 by Mayor William O'Dwyer, Moses became New York City's de facto representative in Washington. Moses was also given powers over public housing that had eluded him under LaGuardia. When O'Dwyer was forced to resign in disgrace and was succeeded by Vincent R. Impellitteri, Moses was able to assume even greater behind-the-scenes control over infrastructure projects.[12] One of Moses's first steps after Impellitteri took office was halting the creation of a citywide Comprehensive Zoning Plan underway since 1938 that would have curtailed his nearly unlimited power to build within the city and removed the Zoning Commissioner from power in the process. Moses was also empowered as the sole authority to negotiate in Washington for New York City projects. By 1959, he had overseen construction of 28,000 apartment units on hundreds of acres of land. In clearing the land for high-rises in accordance with the towers in the park concept, which at that time was seen as innovative and beneficial by leaving more grassy areas between high-rises, Moses sometimes destroyed almost as many housing units as he built.[12]
From the 1930s to the 1960s, Robert Moses was responsible for the construction of the
Moses had influence outside the New York area as well. Public officials in many smaller American cities hired him to design freeway networks in the 1940s and early 1950s. For example,
Moses himself did not know how to drive an automobile.
Brooklyn Dodgers
When
Moses envisioned New York's newest stadium being built in Queens'
End of the Moses era
Moses's reputation began to fade during the 1960s. Around this time, Moses's political acumen began to fail him, as he unwisely picked several controversial political battles he could not possibly win. For example, his campaign against the free Shakespeare in the Park program received much negative publicity, and his effort to destroy a shaded playground in Central Park to make way for a parking lot for the expensive Tavern-on-the-Green restaurant earned him many enemies among the middle-class voters of the Upper West Side.
The opposition reached a climax over the demolition of
Moses's power was further eroded by his association with the
After the World's Fair debacle, New York City mayor
The legislature's vote to fold the TBTA into the newly created
Moses had thought he had convinced Nelson Rockefeller of the need for one last great bridge project, a span
The Power Broker
External videos | |
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Presentation by Robert Caro on Robert Moses and urban development at the Brookings Institution, September 28, 1998, C-SPAN |
Moses's image suffered a further blow in 1974 with the publication of
Caro's depiction of Moses's life gives him full credit for his early achievements, showing, for example, how he conceived and created Jones Beach and the New York State Park system, but also shows how Moses's desire for power came to be more important to him than his earlier dreams. Moses is blamed for having destroyed more than a score of neighborhoods by building 13 expressways across New York City and by building large
People had come to see Moses as a bully who disregarded public input, but until the publication of Caro's book, they had not known many details of his private life—for instance, that his older brother Paul had spent much of his life in poverty. Moses was said to have blocked Paul, an engineer, from being hired for any public service jobs including major infrastructure projects that Moses himself had spearheaded.[54] Paul, whom Caro interviewed shortly before the former's death, claimed Robert had exerted undue influence on their mother to change her will in Robert's favor shortly before her death.[12] Caro notes that Paul was on bad terms with their mother over a long period and she may have changed the will of her own accord, and implies that Robert's subsequent treatment of Paul may have been legally justifiable but was morally questionable.[12]
Death
During the last years of his life, Moses concentrated on his lifelong love of
Moses died of
Moses was of Jewish origin and raised in a
Legacy
Various locations and roadways in New York State bear Moses's name. These include two state parks, Robert Moses State Park – Thousand Islands in Massena, New York and Robert Moses State Park – Long Island, the Robert Moses Causeway on Long Island, and the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant in Lewiston, New York. The Niagara Scenic Parkway in Niagara Falls, New York was originally named the Robert Moses State Parkway in his honor; its name was changed in 2016. The Moses-Saunders Power Dam in Massena, New York also bears his name. Moses also has a school named after him in North Babylon, New York on Long Island; there is also a Robert Moses Playground in New York City. There are other signs of the surviving appreciation held for him by some circles of the public. A statue of Moses was erected next to the Village Hall in his long-time hometown, Babylon Village, New York.
During his tenure as chief of the state park system, the state's inventory of parks grew to nearly 2,600,000 acres (1,100,000 ha). By the time he left office, he had built 658 playgrounds in New York City alone, plus 416 miles (669 km) of parkways and 13 bridges.[56] However, the proportion of public benefit corporations is greater in New York than in any other U.S. state, making them the prime mode of infrastructure building and maintenance in New York and accounting for 90% of the state's debt.[57]
Appraisal
Criticism and The Power Broker
Moses's life was most famously characterized in Robert Caro's 1974 award-winning biography The Power Broker.
The book highlighted his practice of starting large projects well beyond any funding approved by the New York State legislature, with the knowledge that it would eventually have to pay for the rest to avoid looking as having failed to review the project properly (a tactic known as
Moses's critics charge that he preferred automobiles over people. They point out that he displaced hundreds of thousands of residents in New York City and destroyed traditional neighborhoods by building multiple expressways through them. The projects contributed to the ruin of the
Racism
Caro's The Power Broker also accused Moses of building low bridges across his parkways in order to make them inaccessible to public transit buses, thereby restricting "the use of state parks by poor and lower-middle-class families" who did not own cars. Caro also wrote that Moses attempted to discourage Black people in particular from visiting Jones Beach, the centerpiece of the Long Island state park system, by such measures as making it difficult for Black groups to get permits to park buses, even if they came anyway (by other roads), and assigning Black lifeguards to "distant, less developed beaches" instead.[33] While the exclusion of commercial vehicles and the use of low bridges where appropriate were standard on earlier parkways, where they had been instituted for aesthetic reasons, Moses appears to have made greater use of low bridges, which his aide Sidney Shapiro said was done to make it more difficult for future legislators to allow commercial vehicles.[58][59] Woolgar and Cooper refer to the claim about bridges as an "urban legend".[60]
Moses vocally opposed allowing Black war veterans to move into
Additionally, there were allegations that Moses selectively chose locations for recreational facilities based on the racial compositions of neighborhood, such as when he selected sites for eleven pools that opened in 1936. According to one author, Moses purposely placed some pools in neighborhoods with mainly-white populations to deter African Americans from using them, and other pools intended for African Americans, such as the one in Colonial Park, now
In addition, Moses took a favorable view on the British Empire and a racism much broader than solely the African American Community. He had spoken of British Empire as useful in stemming the "rise of the lesser breeds without the law".[65]
Reappraisal
Some scholars have attempted to rehabilitate Moses's reputation by contrasting the scale of works with the high cost and the slow speed of public works in the decades following his era. The peak of Moses's construction occurred during the economic duress of the
Three major exhibits in 2007 prompted a reconsideration of his image among some intellectuals, as they acknowledged the magnitude of his achievements. According to the Columbia University architectural historian Hilary Ballon and colleagues, Moses deserves a better reputation. They argue that his legacy is more relevant than ever and that people take the parks, playgrounds, and housing that Moses built, now generally binding forces in those areas, for granted even if the old-style New York neighborhood was of no interest to Moses himself. Moreover, were it not for Moses's public infrastructure and his resolve to carve out more space, New York might not have been able to recover from the blight and flight of the 1970s and the 1980s to become today's economic magnet.[67]
"Every generation writes its own history," said Kenneth T. Jackson, a historian of New York City to the New York Times in 2007. "It could be that The Power Broker was a reflection of its time: New York was in trouble and had been in decline for 15 years. Now, for a whole host of reasons, New York is entering a new time, a time of optimism, growth and revival that hasn't been seen in half a century. And that causes us to look at our infrastructure," said Jackson. "A lot of big projects are on the table again, and it kind of suggests a Moses era without Moses," he added.[67] Politicians are also reconsidering the Moses legacy; in a 2006 speech to the Regional Plan Association on downstate transportation needs, New York Governor-elect Eliot Spitzer stated a biography of Moses written today might be called At Least He Got It Built: "That's what we need today. A real commitment to get things done."[68]
In popular culture
- Moses is the subject of a satirical song by John Forster entitled "The Ballad of Robert Moses", included on his 1997 album Helium.[69]
- In season 3, episode 2 of the television series Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt, "Kimmy's Roommate Lemonades", Kimmy is shown considering attendance at several New York City colleges with comedic names based on the city's culture and history. One was originally called "Robert Moses College for Whites", and its sign has been altered by crossing out "Whites" and replacing it with the word "Everyone".[70]
- Moses is the subject of a critical song by NYHC band Sick of It All entitled "Robert Moses was a racist", included on their 2018 album Wake the sleeping dragon!.[71]
- The band Bob Moses is named after Robert Moses.[72]
- A fictionalized version of Moses is the main villain of The Unsleeping City, the third season of the web series Dimension 20.
- The character of Moses Randolph in Motherless Brooklyn is based on Robert Moses.[73]
- At the beginning of the COVID pandemic, when many TV commentators, politicians and others worked from their homes, The New York Times noted the frequent placement of The Power Broker as a background element.[74]
- The America", a group of Puerto Rican demonstrators appear, protesting their pending evictions, and one of them holds a sign condemning Robert Moses.[75]
See also
- Car culture
- Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation
- Modernist architecture
- Transportation in New York City
- Urban sprawl
- M. Justin Herman
- Edward J. Logue
- Edmund Bacon (architect)
- Austin Tobin– Port Authority Executive Director
- Long Island State Parkway Police
- New York State Park Police
- New York State Police
References
- ^ Robert Caro, The Power Broker, 1975.
- ^ a b Caro, Robert A. (July 22, 1974). "Annals of Power". The New Yorker. Retrieved September 1, 2011.
- ^ Sarachan, Sydney (January 17, 2013). "The legacy of Robert Moses". Need to Know | PBS. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
- ^ "Jones Beach". Long Island Exchange. Archived from the original on January 21, 2013. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved March 23, 2024.
- ^ "Robert Moses, Master Builder, is Dead at 92". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016.
- ^ Caro 1974, p. 25.
- ^ a b Caro 1974, pp. 29.
- ^ DeWan, George (2007). "The Master Builder". Long Island History. Newsday. Archived from the original on December 11, 2006. Retrieved April 4, 2007.
- ^ Caro 1974, pp. 35.
- ^ "Robert Moses".
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Caro 1974.
- ^ "Moses Resigns State Position". Cornell Daily Sun. Ithaca, NY. December 19, 1928. p. 8.
- ^ Gutfreund, Owen. "Moses, Robert". Anb.org. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
- ISBN 978-0-415-25225-6.
- ^ "New York City Parks Commissioners : NYC Parks". www.nycgovparks.org. Retrieved March 29, 2018.
- ^ "Robert Moses |". www.nypap.org. Retrieved March 29, 2018.
- ^ "Taconic State Parkway". NYCRoads.com. Retrieved May 25, 2006.
- ^ Leonard, Wallock (1991). The Myth of The Master Builder. Journal of Urban History. p. 339.
- ^ Caro 1974, pp. 106, 260.
- OCLC 13860977.
- ^ OCLC 834874.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved August 9, 2019.
- ^ "Public Swimming Facilities in New York City" (PDF) (Press release). New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. July 23, 1934. p. 3 (PDF p. 30). Retrieved January 6, 2021.
- ^ "City to Construct 9 Pools To Provide Safe Swimming". New York Daily News. July 23, 1934. p. 8. Retrieved August 18, 2019 – via newspapers.com .
- ^ a b "History of Parks' Swimming Pools". New York City Department of Parks and Recreation. Retrieved January 15, 2021.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 8, 2021.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 13, 2021.
- ^ "Revisiting The 11 Pools Whose Gala Openings Defined 1936". Curbed NY. August 29, 2013.
- .
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 11, 2021.
- ProQuest 280156824. Retrieved May 12, 2021 – via ProQuest.
- ^ a b Caro 1974, pp. 318–319.
- ISBN 978-0-231-07677-7.
- ^ a b Carion, Carlos. "Robert Moses" (PDF). Nexus.umn.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 26, 2014. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
- ^ "Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel (I-478)". Nycroads.com. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
- ^ a b "Queens-Midtown Tunnel". NYCRoads.com. Retrieved August 1, 2010.
- ^ Mesh, Aaron (November 5, 2014). "Feb. 4, 1974: Portland kills the Mount Hood Freeway". Willamette Week. Retrieved November 21, 2014.
Every great civilization has an origin story. For modern Portland, it is an exodus from Moses. That's Robert Moses, the master builder of New York City's grid of expressways and bridges who brought the Big Apple its car commuters, smog and sprawl. In 1943, the city of Portland hired Moses to design its urban future. Moses charted a highway loop around the city's core with a web of spur freeways running through neighborhoods. The city and state embraced much of the plan. The loop Moses envisioned became Interstate 405 as it links with I-5 south of downtown and runs north across the Fremont Bridge.
- ISBN 978-0-448-15776-4.
- ^ Fetter, Henry D. (Winter 2008). "Revising the Revisionists: Walter O'Malley, Robert Moses, and the End of the Brooklyn Dodgers". New York History (New York State Historical Association). Archived from the original on May 5, 2010.
- ^ a b Murphy, Robert (June 24, 2009). "OMalley-vs-Moses". Huffington Post.
- ^ Lopate, Phillip (March 13, 2007). "Rethinking Robert Moses". Metropolis Magazine. Archived from the original on March 1, 2009. Retrieved October 9, 2010.
- ^ a b Kay, Jane Holtz (April 24, 1989). "Robert Moses: The Master Builder" (PDF). The Nation. 248 (16): 569. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2004. Retrieved October 9, 2010.
- ^ "Environmental and Urban Economics: Robert Moses: New York City's Master Builder?". Greeneconomics.blogspot.com. May 6, 2007. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
- ^ "The Next American System — The Master Builder (1977)". PBS. February 3, 2010.
- ^ "Robert Moses: Long Island's Master Builder". YouTube. Archived from the original on November 14, 2021. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
- ^ a b "Robert Moses". Learn.columbia.edu. Archived from the original on October 28, 2017. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
- ^ Lopate, Phillip (February 11, 2007). "A Town Revived, a Villain Redeemed". The New York Times. Section 14, col. 1. Retrieved August 1, 2010.
- ^ S2CID 164717606. Retrieved August 13, 2017.
- ^ Glaeser, Edward (January 19, 2007). "Great Cities Need Great Builders". The New York Sun. Archived from the original on October 24, 2017. Retrieved October 9, 2010.
- ^ Caro 1974, pp. 510, 514.
- ^ a b Chaldekas, Cynthia (March 16, 2010). "Wrestling with Moses: How Jane Jacobs Took on New York's Master Builder and Transformed the American City". New York Public Library. Retrieved October 9, 2010.
- ^ a b Powell, Michael (May 6, 2007). "A Tale of Two Cities". The New York Times. Retrieved August 1, 2010.
As for the pool-cooling, Mr. Caro interviewed Moses's associates on the record ("You can pretty well keep them out of any pool if you keep the water cold enough," he quotes Sidney M. Shapiro, a close Moses aide, as saying).
- ^ https://professornerdster.com/power-broker-by-robert-caro-summary-analysis-of-chapter-26/
- ^ Purnick, Joyce (August 1, 1981). "Legacy of Moses Hailed". The New York Times. Section 2, col. 1, p. 29. Retrieved August 1, 2010.
- ^ "Robert Moses, Master Builder, is Dead at 92". The New York Times. July 30, 1981. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
- ^ "New York's 'shadow government' debt rises to $140 billion". The Post-Standard. Syracuse. Associated Press. September 2, 2009. Retrieved December 16, 2010.
- ^ Caro 1974, pp. 952.
- ^ Campanella, Thomas (July 9, 2017). "How Low Did He Go?". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved July 25, 2018.
- S2CID 143679977. Retrieved November 17, 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-8078-8898-8. Retrieved January 10, 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-252-06216-2.
- ^ Caro 1974, pp. 512–514.
- ISSN 0037-9808.
- ^ "Winston Churchill's Mother? You've Got the Wrong Brooklyn Address - Hell Gate". hellgatenyc.com. November 13, 2023. Retrieved November 17, 2023.
- ^ Glaeser, Edward (January 19, 2007). "Great Cities Need Great Builders". The New York Sun. Archived from the original on October 24, 2017. Retrieved August 1, 2010.
- ^ a b Pogrebin, Robin (January 28, 2007). "Rehabilitating Robert Moses". The New York Times. p. 1, Section 2, col. 3. Retrieved August 1, 2010.
- ^ Spitzer, Eliot (May 5, 2006). "Downstate Transportation Issues Speech" (PDF). Regional Plan Association. Archived from the original on September 27, 2006. Retrieved February 15, 2007.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "John Forster: the Ballad of Robert Moses". AllMusic. Retrieved January 5, 2018.
- ^ Pape, Allie (May 19, 2017). "Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt Recap: Furiosity". Vulture. New York, NY: New York Media.
- ^ "Sick of It All: Robert Moses was a racist". Discogs. Retrieved April 19, 2019.
- ^ "Vancouver duo Bob Moses on going from a parking lot to the Grammy Awards".
- ^ Klimek, Chris (October 30, 2019). "Edward Norton on Why He Placed 'Motherless Brooklyn' in Robert Moses' New York". Smithsonian. Archived from the original on November 1, 2019. Retrieved November 3, 2019.
- ^ Rubinstein, Dana (May 28, 2020). "Lights. Camera. Makeup. And a Carefully Placed 1,246-Page Book". The New York Times. Retrieved March 20, 2022.
- ^ Hornaday, Ann. "'West Side Story' is an urgent, utterly beautiful revival". Washington Post. Retrieved January 17, 2022.
Bibliography
- Ballon, Hilary (2007). Robert Moses and the modern city : the transformation of New York. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. OCLC 76167277.
- Berman, Marshall (1988). All that is solid melts into air : the experience of modernity. New York, N.Y., U.S.A: Viking Penguin. OCLC 16923119.
- OCLC 834874.
- Christin, Pierre (2014). Robert Moses : Master Builder of New York City. London: Nobrow. OCLC 875240382.
- Christin, Pierre; Balez, Olivier (2018). Robert Moses: The Master Builder of New York City. London: Nobrow. ISBN 978-1-910620-36-6.
- Doig, Jameson W. (1990). "Regional Conflict in the New York Metropolis: the Legend of Robert Moses and the Power of the Port Authority". Urban Studies. 27 (2). SAGE Publications: 201–232. S2CID 146841751.
- Krieg, Joann (1989). Robert Moses : single-minded genius. Interlaken, N.Y: Heart of the Lakes Pub. OCLC 18961485.
- Lewis, Eugene (1980). Public entrepreneurship : toward a theory of bureaucratic political power : the organizational lives of Hyman Rickover, J. Edgar Hoover, and Robert Moses. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. OCLC 6581080.
- Moses, Robert (1970). Public Works: A Dangerous Trade. McGraw-Hill.
- Rogers, Cleveland (January 1, 1939). "Robert Moses". The Atlantic.
- Rodgers, Cleveland (1952). Robert Moses: Builder for Democracy. Holt.
- Vidal, Gore (October 17, 1974). What Robert Moses Did to New York City.
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ignored (help)
Other sources
Exhibits:
- "The Triborough Bridge: Robert Moses and the Automobile Age" exhibit at the New York Transit Museum
- "Robert Moses and the Modern City" Archived October 28, 2017, at the Wayback Machine exhibit February 2007 thru May 2007 at 3 New York City museums
- "Looking Back at Moses" a trio of New York museums
- Photographs from the Museum of the City of New York exhibit
Papers:
- Robert Moses papers, 1912–1980, held by the Manuscripts and Archives Division, New York Public Library
- Online letters of Moses
- Moses's response to Robert Caro's accusations
Archival Audio:
Interviews:
External links
- Robert Moses Papers (MS 360). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
- A film clip "Longines Chronoscope with Robert Moses (February 11, 1953)" is available for viewing at the Internet Archive