Roger II of Sicily

Roger II or Roger the Great (

By 999, Norman adventurers had arrived in southern Italy.^[4] By 1016, they were involved in the complex local politics, where Lombards were fighting against the Byzantine Empire. As mercenaries they fought the enemies of the Italian city-states, sometimes fighting for the Byzantines and sometimes against them, but in the following century they gradually became the rulers of the major polities south of Rome. ^{[citation needed]}

Roger I ruled the

Upon the death in 1105 of his elder brother, Simon of Hauteville, Roger inherited the County of Sicily under the regency of his mother, Adelaide del Vasto. His mother was assisted by such notables as Christodulus, the Greek emir of Palermo. In 1109, Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos bestowed upon him the title of protonobilissimos in recognition of his knowledge of the Byzantine court.^[8] In the summer of 1110, Roger was visited by the Norwegian king Sigurd the Crusader, who was on his way to Jerusalem.^[a][9] The story in Icelandic sources suggests that Sigurd called Roger the king of Sicily twenty years before the latter actually obtained this title.

In 1112, at the age of sixteen, Roger began his personal rule, being named "now knight, now count of Sicily and Calabria" in a charter document dated 12 June 1112.

In 1122, Duke

When William II of Apulia died childless in July 1127, Roger claimed all Hauteville family possessions in the peninsula as well as the overlordship of the Principality of Capua, which had been nominally given to Apulia almost thirty years earlier. However, the union of Sicily and Apulia was resisted by Pope Honorius II and by the subjects of the duchy itself.

Royal investiture

On the death of Pope Honorius in February 1130 there were two claimants to the papal throne. Roger supported Antipope Anacletus II against Innocent II.^[12] The reward was a crown,^[12] and, on 27 September 1130, Anacletus' papal bull made Roger king of Sicily.^[13] He was crowned in Palermo on Christmas Day 1130.

The Royal Mantle of Roger II

Roger II's elaborate royal mantle bears the year 528 of the Islamic calendar (1133–34); therefore it could not have been used for his coronation.^[14][15] This lavish item, made for special events to show power and regality, was most likely worn as a symbol of the Norman's victory and new dynasty in Sicily.^[16] It was later used as a coronation cloak by the Holy Roman Emperors and is now in the Imperial Treasury (Schatzkammer) in Vienna.

The mantle is an example of the Normans' multicultural court and a mark of trade in Palermo. It is a luxury object made from red silk imported from the Byzantine Empire, its outer panels embellished with gold embroidery, pearls, enamel and jewels.^[17][16] The lining panels are separated into five sections made from three separate silks, each woven with gold.^[18] The pearls are from the Persian Gulf, with thousands outlining each section of the embroidery. Pearls were a common decoration on pan-Mediterranean textiles, but were also used and admired on clothing of the Byzantine Empire.^[19] The enameled surfaces are also attributed to the Byzantine Empire, as they had many craftsmen specializing in this type of work. The gold embroidery was most likely created by Muslim craftsmen, given the tiraz bands, the Arabic text in calligraphy, and Kufic script.^[16][20] The piece was made in a private royal workshop, dedicated to creating tiraz fabric and other royal garments.^[21] It is one of few surviving mementos of Fatimid-style royal garb preserved in its entirety.^[22]

The inscription written in the tiraz band along the bottom of the piece states, "Here is what was created in the princely treasury, filled with luck, eminence, majesty, perfection, long-suffering, superiority, welcome, prosperity, liberality, brilliance, pride, beauty, the fulfillment of desires and hopes, the pleasure of days and nights, without cease or change, of glory, devotion, preservation of protection,luck, salvation, victory and capability, in the capital of Sicily, in the year 528 H. [1133–1134]"^[16][23] This mantle was made to promote status, bring the wearer good fortune, and to emphasize Roger II's regal power.

In addition to its lavish decoration and color, the mantle uses striking imagery to convey Roger II's power and victory over the previous dynasty. In a scene evoking domination through primal violence, two lions, a

Roger's backing of Anacletus plunged him into a ten-year war. Bernard of Clairvaux, Innocent's champion, organized a coalition against Anacletus and his "half-heathen king". He was joined by Louis VI of France, Henry I of England, and Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor. Meanwhile, southern Italy revolted.

In 1130, the Duchy of Amalfi revolted and in 1131, Roger sent John of Palermo across the Strait of Messina to join up with a royal troop from Apulia and Calabria and march on Amalfi by land while George of Antioch blockaded the town by sea and set up a base on Capri.^[24] Amalfi soon capitulated.

In 1132, Roger sent Robert II of Capua and Ranulf II of Alife to Rome in a show of force in support of Anacletus. While they were away, Roger's half-sister Matilda, Ranulf's wife, fled to Roger claiming abuse. Simultaneously, Roger annexed Ranulf's brother's County of Avellino. Ranulf demanded the restitution of both wife and countship. Both were denied, and Ranulf left Rome against orders, with Robert following.

First Roger dealt with a rebellion in Apulia, where he defeated and deposed Grimoald, Prince of Bari, replacing him with his second son Tancred. Meanwhile, Robert and Ranulf took papal Benevento. Roger went to meet them but was defeated at the Battle of Nocera on 25 July 1132. He retreated to Salerno.

The next year, Lothair III came down to Rome for his imperial coronation. The rebel leaders met him there, but they were refused help because Lothair's force was too small.

In 1136, the long-awaited imperial army, led by Lothair and the

In spring 1138, the royal army invaded the Principality of Capua, with the precise intent of avoiding a pitched battle and of dispersing Ranulf's army with a series of marches through difficult terrain. While the Count of Alife hesitated, Roger, now supported by Benevento, destroyed all the rebels' castles in the region, capturing an immense booty. In April 1139, at the Second Council of the Lateran, Innocent II declared Roger excommunicated.^[26] Ranulf himself, who had taken refuge in his capital Troia, died of malarial fever on 30 April 1139. Roger exhumed his body from his grave in Troia cathedral and threw it in a ditch, only to repent subsequently and rebury him decently.

At this time, with Sergius dead, Alfonso was elected to replace him and together with his brother Roger went off to conquer the

Consolidation of kingship

After the death of Anacletus in January 1138, Roger had sought the confirmation of his title from Innocent. However, the pope wanted an independent Principality of Capua as a buffer state between the

In 1139, Bari, the 50,000 inhabitants of which had remained unscathed behind its massive walls during the wars of the past year, decided to surrender. The excellentissimus princeps Jaquintus, who had led the rebellion of the city, was hanged, along with many of his followers, but the city avoided being sacked. Roger's execution of the prince and his counsellors was perhaps the most violent act of his life.

While his sons overcame pockets of resistance on the mainland, on 5 November 1139 Roger returned to Palermo to plan a great act of legislation: the Assizes of Ariano, an attempt to establish his dominions in southern Italy as a coherent state. He returned to check on his sons' progress in 1140 and then went to Ariano, a town central to the peninsular possessions (and a center of rebellion under his predecessors). There he promulgated the great law regulating all Sicilian affairs. It invested the king and his bureaucracy with absolute powers and reduced the authority of the often rebellious vassals. While there, centralising his kingdom, Roger declared a new standard coinage, named after the duchy of Apulia: the ducat.

Economy

Roger's reforms in laws and administration aimed not only to strengthen his rule but also to improve the economic standing of Sicily and southern Italy. He was "very concerned to gain money, but hardly very prodigal in expending it".^[29]

In 1140 at his assembly at Ariano he introduced new coinage including smaller denominations, to facilitate trade with the rest of the Mediterranean. However, although this new coinage made long-distance trade easier, it was detrimental to local trade, which spread "hatred throughout Italy".^[29] By the 1150s most of this coinage was no longer in use and soon after, it disappeared altogether.

Nevertheless, the controversy over the coinage did not hinder the Kingdom's prosperity. Roger II had acquired large wealth not only through his royal patrimony but also through his military campaigns and their financial rewards. For example, gold and silver were gained through the campaigns in Apulia in 1133 and Greece in 1147.^[30]

Sicily's geographic situation at the centre of the

A powerful fleet was built up under several admirals, or "emirs", of whom the greatest was George, formerly in the service of the Muslim prince of

The

Family

Roger's first marriage was in 1117 to

Alfonso VI of Castile. When she died, rumors flew that Roger had died as well, as his grief had made him a recluse.^[38]

They had six children:

• Duke of Apulia (from 1135), possibly also Count of Lecce
• Tancred (1119–1138), Prince of Bari (from 1135)
• Prince of Capua (from 1135) and Duke of Naples
• A daughter (died young in 1135)
• Duke of Apulia (from 1148)^[39]
• Henry (1135 – died young)

Roger's second marriage was in 1149 to Sibylla, daughter of Hugh II, Duke of Burgundy.^[40] They had two children:

• Henry (29 August 1149 – died young)
• Stillborn child (16 September 1150)^[40]

Roger's third marriage was in 1151 to Beatrice of Rethel, a grandniece of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem.^[40] They had one daughter:

• Emperor Henry VI and was later Queen of Sicily^[41]

Roger also had five known illegitimate children:

—By a daughter of Hugues I, Count of Molise:

• Prince of Taranto in 1144^[40]

—With unknown mistresses:

• A daughter, wife of Rodrigo Garcés (later Henry, Count of Montescaglioso)
• A daughter, wife of the Neapolitan nobleman Adam
• Clemenza, married Hugues II, Count of Molise
• Adelisa (died after 1184/87) married firstly Joscelin, Count of Loreto, and secondly
  Robert of Bassonville
  , Count of Loritello
• Marina, married the admiral Margaritus of Brindisi

See also

• Palazzo dei Normanni (palace)

Notes

1. ^ Houben quoting Snorri Sturluson, Heimskringla, written in the 1220s. According to the Fagrskinna, Roger was Jarl Rogeirr.^[9]
2. ^ Houben quoting William of Tyre, Chronicon xi.29^[10]

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Houben 2002, p. 30.
2. ^ Abulafia, "Norman Kingdom", 41: Dominus noster Sycilie et Ytalie nec non et tocius Africe serenissimus et invictissimus rex a Deo coronatus pius felix triumphator semper augustus. The definitive source of Sicilian diplomas is K.A. Kehr, Die Urkunden der normannisch-sizilischen Könige (Innsbruck, 1902).
3. ^ Abulafia, "Norman Kingdom", 35, quoting Ibn al-Athīr.
4. ^ Barber 2004, p. 209.
5. ^ Houben 2002, p. xvii.
6. ^ Matthew 1992, p. 21.
7. ^ Houben 2002, p. 24.
8. ^ Britt 2007, p. 24.
9. ^ ^{a b} Houben 2002, p. 26.
10. ^ ^{a b} Houben 2002, p. 29.
11. ^ ^{a b} Houben 2002, p. 37.
12. ^ ^{a b c} Britt 2007, p. 25.
13. ^ Chibnall 2006, p. 86.
14. ^ Bauer 2004, pp. 115–123.
15. ^ Bauer 2004, pp. 85–95.
16. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Mantle of Roger II of Sicily". Quantara: Mediterranean Heritage. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
17. ISBN 978-1-119-06921-8
    , retrieved 7 November 2020
18. S2CID 153723275
    .
19. S2CID 153723275
    .
20. ^ Sokoly 2017, pp. 275–299.
21. ^ "Tiraz: Inscribed Textiles from the Early Islamic Period". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
22. ^ Sokoly 2017, pp. 291–292.
23. ^ "Manto de Roger II de Sicilia". Qantara (in Spanish). Retrieved 18 April 2021.
24. ^ Houben 2002, p. 60.
25. ^ Houben 2002, p. 63.
26. ^ Houben 2002, p. 70.
27. ^ Houben 2002, p. 71.
28. ^ Robinson 1990, p. 386.
29. ^ ^{a b} Houben 2002, p. 159.
30. ^ Houben 2002, p. 161.
31. ^ Houben 2002, p. 164.
32. ^ Houben 2002, p. 163.
33. ^ Houben 2002, p. 106.
34. ^ Matthew 1992, p. 190.
35. OCLC 864745260
36. ^ Takayama 1993, p. 37.
37. ^ "The Ruggero II University".
38. ^ Houben 2002, p. 65.
39. ^ Luscombe & Riley-Smith 2004, p. 760.
40. ^ ^{a b c d e} Houben 2002, p. 96.
41. ^ Schipa 1957, p. 131.

Works cited

• Barber, Malcolm (2004). The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320. Routledge.
  ISBN 0415174155
  .
• Bauer, Rotraud (2004). "Der Mantel Rogers II. und die siculo-normannischen Gewänder aus den königlichen Hofwerkstätten in Palermo". In Seipel, Wilfried (ed.). Nobiles Officinae. Die königlichen Hofwerkstätten zu Palermo zur Zeit der Normannen und Staufer im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert (in German). Milano.
• Britt, Karen C. (2007). "Roger II of Sicily: Rex, Basileus, and Khalif? Identity, Politics, and Propaganda in the Cappella Palatina". Mediterranean Studies. 16. Penn State University Press: 21–45.
  JSTOR 41167003
  .
• Chibnall, Marjorie (2006). The Normans. Wiley & Sons.
• Houben, Hubert (2002). Roger II of Sicily: Ruler between East and West. Translated by Loud, Graham A.; Milburn, Diane. Cambridge University Press.
• Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan, eds. (2004). The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 4, c. 1024–c. 1198, Part II. Cambridge University Press.
• Matthew, Donald (1992). The Norman Kingdom of Sicily. Cambridge Medieval Textbooks.
• Robinson, Ian Stuart (1990). The Papacy, 1073–1198: Continuity and Innovation. Cambridge University Press.
• Schipa, Michaelangelo (1957). "Italy and Sicily under Frederick II". In Tanner, J.R.; Previté-Orton, C. W.; Brooke, Zachary Nugent (eds.). The Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. IV. Cambridge University Press.
• Takayama, Hiroshi (1993). The Administration of the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. E.J. Brill.
• Dolezalek, Isabelle (2013). "Textile Connections? Two Ifrīqiyan Church Treasuries in Norman Sicily and the Problem of Continuity across Political Change" Al-Masaq. 92–112
• Kapitaikin, Lev A. (2017). "Sicily and the Staging of Multiculturalism" A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture John Wiley and Sons Inc. 378–404
• "Quantara – Mantle of Roger II of Sicily" www.qantara-med.org.
• Sokoly, Jochen (2017). "Textiles and Identity". In Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru (eds.). A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 275–299.
  ISBN 978-1119069218
  .
• "Tiraz: Inscribed Textiles from the Early Islamic Period". Metropolitan Museum. 2015.

General references

• Alexander of Telese, The Deeds of Roger.
• Alio, Jacqueline (2018). Queens of Sicily 1061–1266: The queens consort, regent and regnant of the Norman-Swabian era of the Kingdom of Sicily. Trinacria.
• Aubé, Pierre. Roger II de Sicile. 2001.
• Hamel, Pasquale L'invenzione del regno, dalla conquista normanna alla fondazione del Regnum Siciliae (1061/1154) (Palermo, 2009)
• Holmes, George, The Oxford IllustratedHistory of Medieval Europe. OUP, 1988.
• Mendola, Louis (2015). The Kingdom of Sicily 1130–1860. Trinacria.
• Alex Metcalfe The Muslims of Medieval Italy (Edinburgh, 2009)
• Francois Neveux. The Normans, Constable & Robinson, London, 2008 (translated by Howard Curtis).
• Norwich, John Julius. The Normans in the South 1016–1130. Longmans: London, 1967.
• Norwich, John Julius. The Kingdom in the Sun 1130–1194. Longman: London, 1970.
• Rowe, John Gordon. "The Papacy and the Greeks (1122–1153) (Part II)." Church History, Vol. 28, No. 3. (Sep., 1959), pp. 310–327.
• Wieruszowski, Helen. "Roger II of Sicily, Rex-Tyrannus, In Twelfth-Century Political Thought." Speculum, Vol. 38, No. 1. (Jan., 1963), pp. 46–78.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roger II of Sicily.

• Adrian Fletcher’s Paradoxplace – Palermo and the First Normans – Photos
• Al-Idrisi And Roger’s Book , written by Frances Carney Gies.
• Assizes of Ariano Both codices in Latin.

Regnal titles
Preceded by Simon	Count of Sicily 1105–1130	Kingdom of Sicily created
Preceded by William II	Duke of Apulia and Calabria 1127–1134	Succeeded by Roger III
Preceded by Bohemond II	Prince of Taranto 1128–1132	Succeeded by Tancred
New title	King of Sicily 1130–1154	Succeeded by William I