Names of the Greeks

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The Greeks (

Asia Minor (Anatolia)
.

The first

Great Amphictyonic League
after the Trojan War.

When the Romans first encountered Greek colonists in

Arabic, and also by the Turks. The word entered the languages of the Indian subcontinent as the Yona. A unique form is used in Georgian, where the Greeks are called Berdzeni
(ბერძენი).

By

Greeks were Roman citizens after 212 AD. The term Hellene started to be applied to the followers of the polytheistic ("pagan") religion after the establishment of Christianity by Theodosius I
.

General names of Greece

Main article: Name of Greece

Most European languages, as well as other languages that have borrowed the name from one of them, use names for Greece that come from the Latin Graecia and Graecus, the name the Romans used for the Greeks, itself from the Greek Γραικός:

In languages of Middle East and South and Central Asia, the common root is "yun" or "ywn". It is borrowed from the Greek name Ionia, a once Greek region of Asia Minor, and the Ionians:[4]

The third form is "Hellas", used by a few languages around the world, including Greek:

Other forms:

  • Middle Persian
    : 𐭧𐭫𐭥𐭬𐭠𐭣𐭩𐭪𐭩 (Hrōmāyīg)
  • Laz: Xorumona (ხორუმონა)
  • Georgian: საბერძნეთი (Saberdzneti)

Brief history

The first people speaking an ancient

Mycenean Greek, an archaic Greek language which appears in Linear B syllabic inscriptions and the second resulted in the Dorian dialect which displaced the Arcadocypriot dialect that seems to be closest to the Mycenean Greek.[7]

The tribes later called Aeolians and Ionians established several feudal kingdoms around Greece, and the historians called them

Myceneans-Achaeans because in Homer the Achaeans were the dominating tribe in Greece and the name Achiyawa that appears in Hittite texts seems to correspond to a thalassocratic country which might be Mycenea.[8]

Although Homer referred to a union of the Greek kingdoms under the leadership of the king of Mycenae during the

Mediterranean, as there is no evidence that the newcomers established a different civilization.[9] The destruction was followed by the Greek Dark Ages with very poor archaeological findings, when most occupied areas were deserted, but some areas like Attica
occupied by the Ionians remained untouched by the invaders. Several Greek tribes moved to regions of Greece where they acquired different names, and population groups moved through the islands to the western coasts of Asia Minor where they kept their native names Aeolians, Ionians and Dorians.

It seems that the myth of

Dorus, Graecos and Makedon. It seems that the Macedonians
were a Dorian tribe that stayed behind in Macedonia when the main Dorian tribes moved to the south.

Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί)

Main article: Achaeans (Homer)

Late Bronze Age Hittite texts mention a nation called Ahhiya[11] and subsequently Ahhiyawa[12] which have been identified in scholarship[13][14][15] as part of the Mycenaean world.[16] Egyptian records mention peoples known as Ekwesh, Denyen and Tanaju that have been also linked to the Mycenaean world.[17]

In

Argives (Ἀργεῖοι, Argeîoi, used 29 times).[18][19] All of the aforementioned terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek identity.[18]

A fourth term – "Panhellenes" – (Πανέλληνες "All of the Greeks") and "Hellenes'" (/ˈhɛliːnz/; Ἕλληνες) – both appear only once;[20] implying it was not a central concept in Homer's work.[21] In some English translations of the Iliad, the Achaeans are simply called "the Greeks" throughout.

Hellenes (Ἕλληνες)

The main Greek sanctuaries and localization of the sanctuary of Dodona.

There is currently no satisfactory etymology for the name Hellenes. Some scholars assert that the name of the priests of

amphictionies
) caused the name to further extend to the rest of the peninsula.

This theory connects the name Hellenes with the

Okeanos (Ὠκεανός), the great river-ocean that Greeks believed to surround the Earth.[25] The adjective derived from the name, Ogygios (Ὠγύγιος "Ogygian") came to mean "primeval, primal," or "from earliest days" and also "gigantic".[26]

Homer refers to Hellenes as an originally relatively small tribe settled in

Great Amphictyonic League. This was an ancient association of Greek tribes with twelve founders which was organized to protect the great temples of Apollo in Delphi (Phocis) and of Demeter near Thermopylae (Locris).[30] According to legend it was founded after the Trojan War, by the eponymous Amphictyon, brother of Hellen
.

Greeks (Γραικοί)

Further information: Graecians, Graecus, and Graea
Soleto is one of the nine Greek-speaking towns in the province of Apulia, Italy. Their inhabitants are descendants of the first wave of Greek settlers in Italy and Sicily in the 8th century BC. The dialect they speak evolved separately from Hellenistic Greek. The people of these towns call themselves Griki, from the Latin Graecus.

The modern English noun Greek (

Mycenean Greek kera /geras/, "gift of honour".[31] The Germanic languages borrowed the name with an initial k sound, which was probably their initial sound closest to the Latin g (Gothic Kreks).[32]

The first use of Graikos as equivalent to Hellenes is found in Aristotle[33] for the Dorians in Epirus from Graii, a native name of the people of Epirus.[32] He places the seat of these most ancient "Greeks" in the region of the Achelous river around Dodona, where in his opinion the great deluge of Deucalion must have occurred. The priests of Zeus in Dodona were called Selloi, which could lead to Sellanes (like Akarnanes), and then to Hellanes and Hellenes.

Homer is referring to Hellenes as a relatively small tribe in Phthia in central Greece (Achaea Pthiotis). In the Parian Chronicle it is mentioned that Phthia was the homeland of Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Graikoi (Γραικοί).[28] In Greek mythology, Hellen, the patriarch of Hellenes, was son of Deucalion (who ruled around Phthia) and Pyrrha, the only survivors after the great deluge.[29] Hesiod is referring to Graecus, son of Pandora, who was sister of Hellen. Alcman mentions that the mothers of Hellenes were Graikoi.

The German classical historian

Delion."[35] Busolt claimed that the name was given by the Romans originally to the Greek colonists from Graea who helped to found Cumae the important city in southern Italy where the Italic peoples first encountered the Greeks and then to all Greeks.[32]

According to Irad Malkin, Graikoi could have also been an exonym for the Greeks, used by neighboring Illyrians and Messapians.[36] It has been suggested that the name Graeci was possibly an Illyrian name for a Greek tribe with whom they were in contact in north Epirus.[37] N. G. L. Hammond has pointed out that the names Graeci and Hellenes spread from contact with small tribes or with Graia, a defunct Greek polis in the Gulf of Euboea.[38][39]

According to Rene Olivier,

ethnic slur
meaning "fraudster" (in contrast with hellénique which has no negative connotations).

Spread of the use of the term "Hellenes"

Hellenes in the wider meaning of the word appears in writing for the first time in an inscription by

Amphictyonic Games,[41] and refers to the 48th Olympiad (584 BC). Simonides of Ceos in his epigram on the tomb of the Athenians who were killed in the Battle of Marathon
(490 BC) wrote "Ἑλλήνων προμαχοῦντες Ἀθηναῖοι Μαραθῶνι […]" "Fighting at the forefront of the Hellenes, the Athenians at Marathon […]" [42] and after the
Pausanias the leading general of the Hellenes.[43] Awareness of a Pan-Hellenic unity was promoted by religious festivals, most significantly in the Eleusinian Mysteries, in which prospective initiates had to speak Greek, and almost as importantly through participation in the four Panhellenic Games, including the Olympic Games, in which participants were exclusively Greek and recognized by tribal affiliation.[44]

The tribal societies of the north

The development of mythological genealogies of descent from

Dorus, and Xuthus, each of whom founded a primary tribe of Hellas–the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans and Ionians
.

At the time of the Trojan War, the Epirotes (

oligarchic polis (city state) of the south–also contributed to this view of them as "barbaric".[47]

western Hellas, Epirus, and Macedonia as Hellenic in every respect.[52]
Both Thucydides and Demosthenes were themselves of partial non-Attic origins and for Demosthenes it seems of non-Greek origins altogether while notably both of them held strong opposing political positions against Macedonians.

Hellenes and barbarians

In the following centuries, Hellene typically contrasted with barbarian, representing the uncivilized.

The Greek tribes quickly noticed that they did not speak the same tongue as their neighbors, and used the term "βάρβαρος" ("barbarian") for them, with the meanings "uncultured", "uncivilized" or "speaker of a foreign language". The term βάρβαρος is thought to be

Paul of Tarsus considered it his obligation to preach the Gospel to all men, "Hellenes and barbarians, both wise and foolish".[59]

Discrimination between Hellenes and barbarians lasted until the 4th century BC.

freedom and the other for slavery.[60] Aristotle came to the conclusion that "the nature of a barbarian and a slave is one and the same".[61]

ethnic Greek to a cultural term signifying anybody who conducted his life according to Greek mores
.

Ionians (Ἴωνες), Yunani, and Yavan (יָוָן)

Main article: Yona

A wholly different term came to establish itself in the

Arabic (يوناني), Azeri, Turkish, Hindi (यूनान), Indonesian and Malay
.

The related

Seleucid foes). "Yavan" is still the name used for modern Greece in contemporary Israel
.

Although the contemporary

Yueh-Chih
around 160 BC. It has been suggested that the name Yuan was simply a transliteration of the words Yunan, Yona, or Ionians, so that Dàyuān (literally "Great Yuan") would mean "Great Yunans" or "Great Ionians."

Hellene comes to mean "pagan"

See also: Hellenistic religion

The name Hellene was given the meaning "pagan" by the

early Christian church, and retained that meaning until the end of the millennium. It is believed that contact with Christian Jews led some Christians to use Hellene as a means of religious differentiation. Jews, like Greeks
, distinguished themselves from foreigners, but unlike Greeks, did so according to religious rather than cultural standards.

Roman domination of the Greek world enhanced the prestige of the religious institutions that remained intact. Early Christians differentiated people according to religion, so the sense of the word Hellene as a cultural attribute became marginalized and then supplanted by its religious element. Eventually, Christians came to refer to all pagans as Hellenes.

monotheistic religious communities, who respectively believed in many gods or one god.[63] Hellene is used in a religious sense for the first time in the New Testament. In Mark 7:26, a woman arrives before Jesus, and kneeling before him: "The woman was a Hellene, a Syrophœnician by nation; and she besought him that he would cast forth the devil out of her daughter."[64] Since the nationality or ethnicity of the woman is stated to be Syrophœnician, "Greek" (translated as such into the English of the King James Version, but as haiþno "heathen" in Ulfilas's Gothic; Wycliffe and Coverdale likewise have heathen) must therefore signify her polytheistic religion. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that phrases in koine Greek similar to the one in Mark 7:26 ("ἡ δὲ γυνὴ ἦν Ἑλληνίς, Συροφοινίκισσα τῷ γένει·") can be found in the new testament being applied to Jewish people (Acts 18:2 "καὶ εὑρών τινα Ἰουδαῖον ὀνόματι Ἀκύλαν, Ποντικὸν τῷ γένει,")(Acts 18:24 "Ἰουδαῖος δέ τις Ἀπολλὼς ὀνόματι, Ἀλεξανδρεὺς τῷ γένει,") and the Levite Barnabas (Acts 4:36, "Λευΐτης, Κύπριος τῷ γένει"). In all those cases the terms Hellene/Jew/Levite are mentioned, eventually followed by a comma, a designation such as Syrophoenician/Pontic/Alexandrian/Cypriot and after that the words "τῷ γένει", with the last words tending to have differing translations. A broadly similar terminology is found in John 12:20–23: "And there were certain Hellenes among them that came up to worship at the feast ... Jesus answered them, saying, The hour is come, that the Son of man should be glorified". This could have one of two interpretations: either that Jesus meant that the time had come for his religion to spread to the pagans (in which case the term "Hellenes" is religious), or that it would spread by using the Greek language (in which case the term "Hellenes" is meant to be linguistic). The development towards a purely religious meaning was slow, and complete by approximately the 2nd or 3rd century AD: Athenian statesman Aristeides, in his written Apology to the Emperor Hadrian, picked out the Hellenes as one of the representative pagan peoples of the world along with the Egyptians and the Chaldæans.[65] Later, Clement of Alexandria reports an unknown Christian writer who named all of the above Hellenes and spoke of two old nations and one new: the Christian nation.[66]

Several books written at this time demonstrate clearly the

Julian's attempt to restore paganism failed, and according to Pope Gregory I, "matters moved in favor of Christianity and the position of the Hellenes was severely aggravated".[67] Half a century later Christians protested against the Eparch of Alexandria, whom they accused of being a Hellene.[68] Theodosius I initiated the first legal steps against paganism, but it was Justinian's legal reforms that triggered pagan persecutions on a massive scale. The Corpus Juris Civilis contained two statutes which decreed the total destruction of Hellenism, even in civic life, and were zealously enforced even against men in high position. The official suppression of paganism made non-Christians a public threat, which further derogated the meaning of Hellene. Paradoxically, Tribonian, Justinian's own legal commissioner, according to the Suda dictionary, was a Hellene (pagan).[69]

The usage of Hellene as a religious term was initially part of an exclusively Christian nomenclature, but some Pagans began to defiantly call themselves Hellenes. Other pagans even preferred the narrow meaning of the word from a broad cultural sphere to a more specific religious grouping. However, there were many Christians and pagans alike who strongly objected to the evolution of the terminology. The influential

Archbishop of Constantinople Gregory of Nazianzus, for example, took offence at imperial efforts to suppress Hellenic culture (especially concerning spoken and written Greek) and he openly criticized the emperor.[70]

The name Hellene meaning "pagan" has persisted into modern times. Many groups advocating a revival or reconstruction of the worship of the Olympian Gods call themselves Hellenic Polytheists and the religion Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism or

Hellenismos
. Such groups outside of Greece are careful not to imply that, by calling themselves Hellenes, they consider themselves Greek nationals.

Macedonians (Μακεδόνες)

The name "Macedonians", in order to colloquially mean the Greek soldiers (etc) that

Thessalonica
as its capital.

Romans (Ῥωμαῖοι)

See also: Rum (endonym) and Rumelia

Laonicus Chalcondyles, he also went ahead with identifying Byzantine
historiography for the purpose of distinguishing medieval Greek from ancient Roman history.

Romans or Rhomaioi (Ῥωμαῖοι; sg. Ῥωμαῖος Rhomaios) and Romioi (Ρωμιοί; sg. Ρωμιός Romios), is the name by which the Greeks were known in the Middle Ages and during

Germanus II, Niketas Choniates and Nicaean Emperor Theodore II Laskaris also used the classicizing term Ausones to refer to the people of the Eastern Roman Empire,[75] although, as John Tzetzes points out (in his Scholia to Lycophron's "Alexandra", attributed to himself and his brother Isaac), that should be understood in its proper context as a literary device.[76]
Overall, the word Rhomaios came to represent the Hellenized inhabitants of the East Roman Empire.

Overall, the foreign borrowed name (Romans) initially had a more political than national meaning, which went hand in hand with the universalizing ideology of Rome that aspired to encompass all nations of the world under one true God. Up until the early 7th century, when the Empire still extended over large areas and many peoples, the use of the name "Roman" always indicated

Arab invasions in the same century resulted in the loss of most of the provinces including Italy and all of the Middle East, save for Anatolia
. The areas that did remain were mostly Greek-speaking, thereby turning the empire into a much more cohesive unit that eventually developed a fairly self-conscious Greek identity.

The Byzantines' failure to protect the

papacy appropriately "transferred Roman imperial authority from the Greeks to the Germans, in the name of His Greatness, Charles".[79] From then on, a war of names about the New Rome revolved around Roman imperial rights. Unable to deny that an emperor did exist in Constantinople, they sufficed in renouncing him as a successor of Roman heritage on the grounds that Greeks have nothing to do with the Roman legacy. In 865, Pope Nicholas I wrote to the Emperor Michael III: "You ceased to be called 'Emperor of the Romans' since the Romans, of whom you claim to be Emperor, are in fact according to you barbarians."[80]

Henceforth, the emperor in the East was known and referred to in the West as Emperor of the Greeks and their land as Greek Empire, reserving both "Roman" titles for the Frankish king. The interests of both sides were nominal rather than actual. No land areas were ever claimed, but the insult the Byzantines took on the accusation demonstrates how close at heart the Roman name (Ῥωμαῖος) had become to them. In fact, Bishop

Otto I, claiming the "Roman" title by styling himself as Holy Roman Emperor
.

Revival in the meaning of "Hellene"

The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople, by Eugène Delacroix, 1840. The sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the Crusaders acerbated Greek nationalism and created disdain for the Latins which is well illustrated in the documents of the era. Niketas Choniates portrays an especially lively account of the sack and its aftermath.

The secular use of Hellene revived in the 9th century, after paganism had been eclipsed and was no longer a threat to Christianity's dominance. The revival followed the same track as its disappearance. The name had originally declined from a national term in antiquity, to a cultural term in the Hellenistic years, to a religious term in the early Christian years. With the demise of paganism and the revival of learning in the Byzantine Empire it had regained its cultural meaning, and finally, by the 11th century it had returned to its ancient national form of an "ethnic Greek", synonymous at the time to "Roman".

Accounts from the 11th century onward (from

George Gemistos Plethon
and several others) prove that the revival of the term Hellene (as a potential replacement for ethnic terms like Graikos and Romaios) did occur. For example, Anna Komnene writes of her contemporaries as Hellenes, but does not use the word as a synonym for a pagan worshiper. Moreover, Anna boasts about her Hellenic classical education, and she speaks as a native Greek and not as an outsider/foreigner who learned Greek.

The refounding of the

Roman Catholic Church, and the "Hellenes" as the dominant population of the empire.[85]

After the fall of Constantinople to the

Byzantine emperors as Hellenes,[87] and Theodore Alanias wrote in a letter to his brother that "the homeland may have been captured, but Hellas still exists within every wise man".[88] The second Emperor of Nicaea, John III Doukas Vatatzes, wrote in a letter to Pope Gregory IX about the wisdom that "rains upon the Hellenic nation". He maintained that the transfer of the imperial authority from Rome to Constantinople was national and not geographic, and therefore did not belong to the Latins occupying Constantinople: Constantine's heritage was passed on to the Hellenes, so he argued, and they alone were its inheritors and successors.[89] His son, Theodore II Laskaris, was eager to project the name of the Greeks with true nationalistic zeal. He made it a point that "the Hellenic race looms over all other languages" and that "every kind of philosophy and form of knowledge is a discovery of Hellenes […]. What do you, O Italian, have to display?"[90]

The evolution of the name was slow and did not replace the "Roman" name completely.

Laonicus Chalcondyles was a proponent of completely substituting "Roman" terminology for "Greek" terminology.[95] Constantine Palaiologos himself in the end proclaimed Constantinople the "refuge for Christians, hope and delight of all Hellenes".[96]
On the other hand, the same Emperor in his final speech before the Empire's demise called upon his audience to rally to the defenses by characteristically referring to them as "descendants of Hellenes and Romans", most possibly as an attempt to combine Greek national sentiment with the Roman tradition of the Byzantine crown and Empire, both highly respected elements in his subjects' psyche at that moment.

Byzantines (Βυζαντινοί)

By the time of the fall of the Western Roman Empire most easterners had come to think of themselves as Christians and, more than ever before, as Romans. Although they may not have liked their government any more than they had previously, the Greeks among them could no longer consider it foreign, run by Latins from Italy. The word Hellene itself had already begun to mean a pagan rather than a person of Greek race or culture. Instead eastern Greeks overwhelmingly used the self-identifying term Rhomaios, "Roman".[97][98]

The term "Byzantine Empire" is commonly understood to have been introduced in 1557, about a century after the

Constantine Paparregopoulos, Gibbon's influential Greek counterpart, that the empire should be called Greek. Few Greek scholars adopted the terminology at that time, but it became popular in the second half of the 20th century.[101]

Hellenic continuity and Byzantine consciousness

Main article: Byzantine Greeks
The first printed Charter of the Greek Community of Trieste, Italy 1787 – Archives of the Community of Trieste.

The "Byzantines" referred to themselves as Rhomaioi to retain both their Roman citizenship and their ancient Hellenic heritage. In fact, the overwhelming majority of the "Byzantines" themselves were also very conscious of their uninterrupted continuity with the ancient Greeks. Even though the ancient Greeks were not Christians, the "Byzantines" still regarded them as their ancestors. A common substitute for the term Hellene, other than Rhomaios, was the term Graikos (Γραικός), a term that was used often by the "Byzantines" (along with Rhomaios) for ethnic self-identification. Evidence of the use of the term Graikos can be found in the works of

Scythian but spoke Greek. When Priskos asked the person where he had learned the language, the man smiled and said that he was a Graekos by birth. Many other "Byzantine" authors speak of the Empire's natives as Greeks [Graikoi] or Hellenes such as Constantine Porphyrogennitos of the 10th century. His accounts discuss about the revolt of a Slavic tribe in the district of Patras in the Peloponnese. Constantine states that the Slavs who revolted first proceeded to sack the dwellings of their neighbors, the Greeks (ton Graikon) and then moved against the inhabitants of the city of Patras. Overall, ancient Hellenic continuity was evident throughout the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. The "Byzantines" were not merely a general Orthodox Christian populace that referred to themselves as merely "Romans". They used the term for legal and administrative purposes, but other terms were used to distinguish themselves ethnically. In short, the Greek inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire were very conscious of their ancient Hellenic heritage and could preserve their identity while they adapted to the changes that the world was undergoing.[102][unreliable source
]

Contest between the names Hellene, Roman, and Greek

Following the

Asia Minor to the Turks
.

The struggle reflected the diverging view of history between

Makrygiannis recalled a friend asking him: "What say you, is the Roman State far away from coming? Are we to sleep with the Turks and awaken with the Romans?"[105]

Preference for the term Greek (Γραικός) was exhibited by scholars such as Adamantios Korais, a renowned Greek classicist, who justified his selection in A Dialogue between Two Greeks: "Our ancestors used to call themselves Greeks but adopted afterwards the name Hellenes by a Greek who called himself Hellen. One of the above two, therefore, is our true name. I approved 'Greece' because that is what all the enlightened nations of Europe call us."[106] Hellenes for Korais are the pre-Christian inhabitants of Greece.

The absence of a Byzantine state gradually led to the marginalization of the Roman name and allowed Hellene (Ἕλλην) to resurface as the primary national name. Dionysius Pyrrhus [el] requests the exclusive use of Hellene in his Cheiragogy: "Never desire to call yourselves Romans, but Hellenes, for the Romans from ancient Rome enslaved and destroyed Hellas".[107] The anonymous author of The Hellenic Realm of Law, published in 1806 in Pavia, Italy, speaks of Hellenes: "The time has come, O Hellenes, to liberate our home".[108] The leader of the Greek War of Independence began his Declaration with a phrase similar to the above: "The time has come, O men, Hellenes".[109] After the name was accepted by the spiritual and political leadership of the land, it rapidly spread to the population, especially with the onset of the Greek War of Independence where many naïve leaders and war figures distinguished between idle Romans and rebellious Hellenes.[110] General Theodoros Kolokotronis in particular made a point of always addressing his revolutionary troops as Hellenes and invariably wore a helmet of ancient Greek style.

General

massacre by the mob: "They spoke to the petty and small Hellenes as 'Romans'. It was as if they called them 'slaves'! The Hellenes not bearing to hear the word, for it reminded of their situation and the outcome of tyranny […]"[111]

The citizens of the newly independent state were called "Hellenes" making the connection with ancient Greece all the more clear. That in turn also fostered a fixation on antiquity and negligence for the other periods of history, especially the Byzantine Empire, for an age that bore different names and was a devisor to different and in many ways more important legacies. The classicist trend was soon balanced by the Greek Great Idea that sought to recover Constantinople and reestablish the Byzantine Empire for all Greeks. As the Prime Minister, Ioannis Kolettis, proclaimed in front of Parliament in 1844, "The Kingdom of Greece is not Greece; it is only part of it, a small and poor part of Greece […]. There are two great centers of Hellenism. Athens is the capital of the Kingdom. Constantinople is the great capital, the City, dream and hope of all Greeks."[112]

See also

References

  1. ^ C. Mossé. (1984). La Grèce archaïque d'Homère à Eschyle. Editions du Seuil, Paris, p. 12.
  2. ^ Those who believe that the stories of the Trojan War are derived from a specific historical conflict usually date it to the 12th or 11th centuries BC, often preferring the dates given by Eratosthenes, 1194–1184 BC, which roughly corresponds with archaeological evidence of a catastrophic burning of Troy VIIa.
  3. ^ Johannes Engels (2010). "Macedonians and Greeks". In Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington's A Companion to Ancient Macedonia, Oxford, Chichester & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 81–98.
  4. ISBN 9780521234474
    .
  5. ^ Newmark, Leonard (2005). "Albanian-English Dictionary". Slavic and Eurasian Language Resource Center (Duke University). Ella'dhë nf (Old) Greece = Greqi'
  6. ^ A comprehensive overview in J. T. Hooker. Mycenean Greece (1976, 22014), especially Chapter 2, "Before the Mycenenan Age", pp. 11–33 and passim; for a different hypothesis excluding massive migrations and favoring an autochthonous scenario see, C. Renfrew. "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Authochous origin" in: R. A. Crossland & A. Birchall (eds.). Bronze age Migrations (1974), pp. 263–275, especially p. 267.
  7. ISBN 0-521-29037-6
    .
  8. ^ O. R. Gurney (1975). The Hittites. Oxford University Press, p. 15.
  9. ^ C. Mossé. (1984). La Grèce archaïque d'Homère à Eschyle. Editions du Seuil, Paris, pp. 16, 18.
  10. ^ Aeschines, II (On the Embassy), 115; see also Strabo, IX.3.7, and Pausanias, X.8.2–5.
  11. ^ Translation of the Sins of Madduwatta Archived February 28, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ Translation of the Tawagalawa Letter Archived 2013-10-21 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ Huxley, George Leonard (1960). Achaeans and Hittites. Oxford: Vincent Baxter Press.
  14. S2CID 191376388
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  15. S2CID 194070218
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  16. ISBN 978-0-19-926308-0
    .
  17. ^ Kelder, Jorrit M. (2010). "The Egyptian Interest in Mycenaean Greece". Jaarbericht "Ex Oriente Lux" (JEOL). 42: 125–140.
  18. ^ a b Paul Cartledge. Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 23: "The late Bronze Age in Greece is also called conventionally 'Mycenaean', as we saw in the last chapter. But it might in principle have been called 'Argive', 'Achaean', or 'Danaan', since the three names that Homer does in fact apply to Greeks collectively were 'Argives', 'Achaeans', and 'Danaans'." Counted, excluding his Catalogue of Ships.
  19. ^ Homer. Iliad, 2.155–175, 4.8; Odyssey, 8.578, 4.6.
  20. ^ See Iliad, II.2.530 for "Panhellenes" and Iliad II.2.653 for "Hellenes".
  21. ^ Nagy 2014, Texts and Commentaries – Introduction #2: "Panhellenism is the least common denominator of ancient Greek civilization...
  22. ^ Robert S. P. Beekes (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Entry "Selloi"[permanent dead link].
  23. Meteorologica
    , I, 352b.
  24. ^ Homer (Iliad, 16.233–235) writes of Achilles praying to the Dodonian Zeus: '"King Zeus", he cried, "lord of Dodona, god of the Pelasgi, who dwellest afar, you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway, where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you with their feet unwashed and their couches made upon the ground"'.
  25. ^ Compare Fontenrose, p. 236.
  26. Liddell & Scott, "Ὠγύγιος"
    .
  27. ^ Homer. Iliad, 2.681–685.
  28. ^ a b The Parian Marble, Entry No. 6: "From when Hellen (Έλλην) [son of] Deuc[alion] became king of [Phthi]otis and those previously called Graikoi were named Hellenes" (online text).
  29. ^ a b Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.7.2.
  30. ^ Aeschines, II (On the Embassy), 115. Pausanias. Description of Greece, 8.2–5.
  31. ^ a b Robert S. P. Beekes (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Leiden: Brill, p. 267.
  32. ^ a b c d Greek entry in Douglas Harper's Online Etymology Dictionary.
  33. ^ Aristotle. Meteorologica, I.XIV.
  34. ^ Homer, Iliad, II, 498.
  35. ^ Pausanias, Periegesis, book 5, p. 136.
  36. ISBN 978-0-520-92026-2
    .
  37. ISBN 0-8061-2136-X
    .
  38. ^ Campbell, Duncan R. J. (2009). The so-called Galatae, Celts, and Gauls in the Early Hellenistic Balkans and the Attack on Delphi in 280–279 BC (Thesis). University of Leicester. p. 120 including footnote 59.
  39. ^ N. G. L. Hammond (1966). "The Kingdoms in Illyria circa 400–167 BC", Annual of the British School at Athens, 61: 239–253}}
  40. ^ Rene Olivier. Wörterbuch Französisch–Deutsch (12th Edition), Leipzig, 1985, p. 258, cited in [1]
  41. ^ Pausanias. "Description of Greece", 10.7.6:
    ...μαρτυρεῖ δέ μοι καὶ τοῦ Ἐχεμβρότου τὸ ἀνάθημα, τρίπους χαλκοῦς ἀνατεθεὶς τῷ Ἡρακλεῖ τῷ ἐν Θήβαις: ἐπίγραμμα δὲ ὁ τρίπους εἶχεν: ...testimony of the dedication of Echembrotus, a copper tripod, dedicated to Hercules the Thebean; this tripod had this epigram:
    "Ἐχέμβροτος Ἀρκὰς θῆκε τῷ Ἡρακλεῖ "
    Arcadia, dedicated (this) to Hercules
    ,
    νικήσας τόδ' ἄγαλμ' Ἀμφικτυόνων ἐν ἀέθλοις, having won this statue in the Amphictyonic Games,
    Ἕλλησι δ' ἀείδων μέλεα καὶ ἐλέγους." singing to the Greeks tunes and lamentations."
  42. ^ Lycurgus. Against Leocrates, Speech 1, Section 109.
  43. ^ Thucydides. Histories, I.132.
  44. ^ Jacob Burckhardt (1999) [1872]. The Greeks and Greek Civilization. New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 168.
  45. ^ The Macedonians were Persian subjects at this time but their King, Alexander I, secretly pursued a pro-Hellenic policy. See Herodotus, Histories, IX.45.
  46. ^ In respect to the kingdom of Macedon, participation was originally limited to the Argead kings such as Alexander I, Archelaus I and Philip II. Onwards from the age of Alexander I, participation of ordinary Macedonians in the Olympic Games became common.
  47. ^ N. G. L. Hammond. A History of Greece to 322 BC (3rd Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
  48. ^ Thucydides. History, II.68.5 and III.97.5.
  49. ^ Thucydides. History, II.68.9, II.80.5 and I.47.3.
  50. ^ Thucydides. History, II.80.5.
  51. ^ See discussion in Chapter 5 of Jonathan Hall's Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002.
  52. ^ J. Juthner. Hellenen and Barbaren. Leipzig 1928, p. 4.
  53. ^ Oxford English Dictionary (2nd Edition), 1989, "barbarous" (entry)
  54. ^ Polybius. History, 9.38.5; see also Strabo, Geographica, 7.7.4; see also Herodotus, Histories, I.56, VI.127 and VIII.43.
  55. ^ Herodotus. Histories, II.158.
  56. ^ Aristophanes, "The Birds", 199
  57. ^ Aristophanes. The Clouds, 492.
  58. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Archaeology, 1.89.4.
  59. ^ Saint Paul. Epistle to the Romans, 1.14.
  60. ^ Euripides. Iphigeneia at Aulis, 1400.
  61. ^ Aristotle. Republic, I.5.
  62. ^ Isocrates. "50". Panegyricus. Translated by George Norlin.
  63. ^ Saint Paul, Acts of the Apostles, 13:48, 15:3 and 7:12, Galatians 3:28.
  64. ^ New Testament. Gospel of Mark, 7.26.
  65. ^ Aristides, Apology.
  66. ^ Clement of Alexandria. Miscellanies, 6.5.41.
  67. ^ Pope Gregory. Against Julian, 1.88.
  68. ^ Suda Dictionary, entry τ (t)
  69. ^ Socrates. Ecclesiastical History, 7.14.
  70. ISBN 978-0-520-06550-5
    .
  71. ^ E. g. Nearchus, who was from Crete, became a satrap of Lycia and Pamphylia. Entry"Nearchus', in Britannica.
  72. ^ Arrian. Anabasis Alexandri, 2.7.4.
  73. ^ C. Brixhe, A. Panayotou, 1994, «Le Macédonien» in Langues indo-européennes, p. 208.
  74. ISBN 978-3-11-096405-9
    .
  75. ISBN 978-1-139-46842-8
    .
  76. ^ Isaac Tzetzes; John Tzetzes; Lycophron; Christian Gottfried Müller (1811). Isaakiou kai Iōannou tou Tzetzou Scholia eis Lykophrona. Sumtibus F.C.G. Vogelii. p. 179.
  77. ^ Procopius. Gothic War, III.1 and Vandal War, I.21.
  78. ^ Lambru. Palaeologeia and Peloponnesiaka, 3.152.
  79. ^ Pope Innocent. Decretalium, Romanourm imperium in persona magnifici Caroli a Grecis transtuli in Germanos.
  80. ^ Epistola 86, of year 865, PL 119, 926.
  81. ^ Liutprand, Antapodosis
  82. ^ Romanus III. Towards the son of Romanus himself, p. 49.
  83. ^ Anna Komnene, Alexiad, prologue 1.
  84. ^ Anna Komnene. Alexiad, 15.7.
  85. ^ Espugnazione di Thessalonica, Palermo 1961, p. 32.
  86. ^ Niketas Choniates. The Sack of Constantinople, Bonn, p. 806.
  87. ^ Nikephoros Blemmydes. Partial Narration, 1.4.
  88. ^ Theodore Alanias, PG 140, 414.
  89. ^ John Vatatzes. Ανέκδοτος επιστολή του Αυτοκράτορος Ιωάννου Δούκα Βατάτση προς τον Πάπαν Γρηγόριον, ανεβρεθείσα εν Πάτμω (= "Unpublished Letters of Emperor John Vatatzes to Pope Gregory, discovered in Patmos"), in Athenaion I (1872), pp. 369–378 (in Greek).
  90. ^ Theodore Laskaris. Christian Theology, 7f.
  91. ^ Nikephoros Gregoras, Roman History.
  92. ^ John Kantakouzenos. History, 4.14.
  93. ^ Similar texts were composed by the scribes of the kings in the north such as Russia, Poland, Lithuania, etc.
  94. ^ George Gemistos Plethon in Palaiologeia kai Peloponnesiaka, p. 247.
  95. ^ Laonicus Chalcondyles, History I.
  96. ^ George Phrantzes. History, 3.6.
  97. ^ Warren Treadgold (1997). History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press, p. 136.
  98. ^ Gill Page (2008). Being Byzantine: Greek Identity Before the Ottomans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 6.
  99. ISBN 978-0-88402-484-2
    .
  100. ^ Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; Alexandre Rambeau, L'empire Grecque au Xe siecle.
  101. ^ Ῥωμαῖος (Roman) remained a popular name for a Greek in Greece even after the foundation of the modern Greek state in 1829. Argyris Eftaliotis published his history of Greece series in 1901 under the title "History of Romanity", reflecting how well rooted Roman heritage still was in Greeks.
  102. ^ Constantelos, Demetrios J. (12 September 2004). "Christian Hellenism and How the Byzantines Saw Themselves". Orthodox News. The National Herald. Archived from the original on 25 May 2006. Retrieved 19 September 2008.
  103. ^ Kakavas, George (2002). Post-Byzantium: The Greek Renaissance 15th–18th Century Treasures from the Byzantine & Christian Museum, Athens. Athens, Greece: Hellenic Ministry of Culture, p. 29.
  104. ^ Rigas Feraios, Thurius, Line 45.
  105. ^ Strategus Makrygiannis, Memoirs, Book 1, Athens 1849, p. 117.
  106. ^ Adamantios Korais. Dialogue between two Greeks, Venice, 1805, p. 37.
  107. ^ Dionysius Pyrrhus. Cheiragogy, Venice, 1810.
  108. ^ Hellenic Prefecture, Athens, 1948, p. 191.
  109. ^ Ioannes Philemon (Ιωάννης Φιλήμων, 1799–1874). Δοκίμιον ιστορικόν περί της ελληνικής Επαναστάσεως (= "Historical Essay on the Greek Revolution"), Vol. 2. Athens 1859, p. 79 (in Greek; digitized versions).
  110. ^ Ioannis Kakrides. Ancient Greeks and Greeks of 1821, Thessalonike, 1956.
  111. ^ Ambrosius Phrantzes (Αμβρόσιος Φραντζής, 1778–1851). Επιτομή της Ιστορίας της Αναγεννηθείσης Ελλάδος (= "Abridged history of the Revived Greece"), vol. 1. Athens 1839, p. 398 ([2]).
  112. ^ Hamilakis, Yannis (2007). The Nation and Its Ruins: Antiquity, Archaeology, and National Imagination in Greece. Oxford University Press. pp. 114–115.

Sources

Bibliography

In English

  • John Romanides, "Romanity, Romania, Rum", Thessalonike, 1974
  • Steven Runciman, "Byzantine and Hellene in the 14th century"

In other languages

  • Panagiotis Christou, The Adventures of the National Names of the Greeks, Thessalonike, 1964
  • Antonios Hatzis, Elle, Hellas, Hellene, Athens, 1935–1936
  • J. Juthner, Hellenen und Barbaren, Leipzig, 1923
  • Basileios A. Mystakides, Αι λέξεις Έλλην, Γραικός (Γραικύλος), Ρωμαίος (Γραικορρωμαίος), Βυζαντινός, Μωαμεθανός, Τούρκος, Istanbul, 1920
  • Ioannis Kakrides, Ancient Greeks and Greeks of 1821, Athens, 1956
  • A. Rambeau, "L'empire Grecque au X' siecle"
  • D.Cerqueiro, La Hélade ubral de la civilización occidental, Buenos Aires, 2013

External links

Look up Greek or Γραικός in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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