Roman–Persian Wars
The Roman–Persian Wars, also known as the Roman–Iranian Wars, were a series of conflicts between states of the
Although warfare between the Romans and Persians continued over seven centuries, the frontier, aside from shifts in the north, remained largely stable. A game of tug of war ensued: towns, fortifications, and provinces were continually sacked, captured, destroyed, and traded. Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders, and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers too thin. Both sides did make conquests beyond the border, but in time the balance was almost always restored. Although initially different in military tactics, the armies of both sides gradually adopted from each other and by the second half of the 6th century, they were similar and evenly matched.[2]
The expense of resources during the Roman–Persian Wars ultimately proved catastrophic for both empires. The prolonged and escalating warfare of the 6th and 7th centuries left them exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the
Historical background
According to
Roman–Parthian wars
Roman Republic vs. Parthia
Parthian enterprise in the
The Roman general Marcus Licinius Crassus led an invasion of Mesopotamia in 53 BC with catastrophic results; he and his son Publius were killed at the Battle of Carrhae by the Parthians under General Surena;[10] this was the worst Roman defeat since the battle of Arausio. The Parthians raided Syria the following year, and mounted a major invasion in 51 BC, but their army was caught in an ambush near Antigonea by the Romans, and they were driven back.[11]
The Parthians largely remained neutral during
Roman Empire vs. Parthia
With tensions between the two powers threatening renewed war,
A fresh series of conflicts began in the 2nd century AD, during which the Romans consistently held the upper hand over Parthia. The Emperor
Trajan's Parthian War initiated a "shift of emphasis in the 'grand strategy of the Roman empire' ", but his successor, Hadrian, decided that it was in Rome's interest to re-establish the Euphrates as the limit of its direct control. Hadrian returned to the status quo ante, and surrendered the territories of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Adiabene to their previous rulers and client-kings.[22]
Roman–Sasanian wars
Early Roman–Sasanian conflicts
Conflict resumed shortly after the overthrow of Parthian rule and
The struggle resumed and intensified under Ardashir's successor
With the Roman Empire debilitated by Germanic invasions and a series of short-term emperors, Shapur I soon resumed his attacks. In the early 250s, Philip was involved in a struggle over the control of Armenia; Shapur conquered Armenia and killed its king, defeated the Romans at the Battle of Barbalissos in 253, then probably took and plundered Antioch.[33] Between 258 and 260, Shapur captured Emperor Valerian after defeating his army at the Battle of Edessa. He advanced into Anatolia but was defeated by Roman forces there; attacks from Odaenathus of Palmyra forced the Persians to withdraw from Roman territory, surrendering Cappadocia and Antioch.[34]
In 275 and 282
After a brief period of peace during
The arrangements of 299 lasted until the mid-330s, when
In 383 or 384 Armenia again became a bone of contention between the Roman and the Sasanian empires, but hostilities did not occur.
Byzantine–Sasanian wars
Anastasian War
Finally in 504, the Romans gained the upper hand with the renewed
In 505 Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at Dara. The dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa, Batnac and Amida.[60] Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work continued at Dara. This construction project was to become a key component of the Roman defenses, and also a lasting source of controversy with the Persians, who complained that it violated the treaty of 422, by which both empires had agreed not to establish new fortifications in the frontier zone. Anastasius, however, pursued the project, and the walls were completed by 507/508.[57]
Iberian War
In 524–525 AD, Kavadh proposed that
In 530 a major Persian offensive in Mesopotamia was defeated by Roman forces under Belisarius at
Lazic War
Roman (Byzantine) Empire Acquisitions by Justinian | Sasanian Empire Sasanian vassals |
The Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" in 540 AD, probably in response to the Roman reconquest of much of the former western empire, which had been facilitated by the cessation of war in the East. Khosrau I invaded and devastated Syria, extorting large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia, and systematically looting other cities including
Early in 548, King
War for the Caucasus
War broke again shortly after Armenia and Iberia revolted against Sasanian rule in 571 AD, following clashes involving Roman and Persian proxies
The Romans exploited Persian disarray as general
In 580, Hormizd IV abolished the
The Persians captured
Climax
In 602 the Roman army campaigning in the Balkans mutinied under the leadership of Phocas, who succeeded in seizing the throne and then killed Maurice and his family. Khosrau II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext for war and reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia.[103] In the early years of the war the Persians enjoyed overwhelming and unprecedented success. They were aided by Khosrau's use of a pretender claiming to be Maurice's son, and by the revolt against Phocas led by the Roman general Narses.[104] In 603 Khosrau defeated and killed the Roman general Germanus in Mesopotamia and laid siege to Dara. Despite the arrival of Roman reinforcements from Europe, he won another victory in 604, while Dara fell after a nine-month siege. Over the following years the Persians gradually overcame the fortress cities of Mesopotamia by siege, one after another.[105] At the same time they won a string of victories in Armenia and systematically subdued the Roman garrisons in the Caucasus.[106]
Phocas' brutal repression sparked a succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew Nicetas to attack Egypt, enabling his son Heraclius the younger to claim the throne in 610. Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in Byzantine sources as a "tyrant", was eventually deposed by Heraclius, having sailed from Carthage.[107] Around the same time, the Persians completed their conquest of Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia, occupying Caesarea.[108] Having expelled the Persians from Anatolia in 612, Heraclius launched a major counter-offensive in Syria in 613. He was decisively defeated outside Antioch by Shahrbaraz and Shahin, and the Roman position collapsed.[109]
Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer
During these years, Heraclius strove to rebuild his army, slashing non-military expenditures, devaluing the currency and melting down Church plate, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, to raise the necessary funds to continue the war.[116] In 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor and, after conducting exercises to revive their morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war.[117] In the Caucasus he inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz.[118] Following a lull in 623, while he negotiated a truce with the Avars, Heraclius resumed his campaigns in the East in 624 and routed an army led by Khosrau at Ganzak in Atropatene.[119] In 625 he defeated the generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin and Shahraplakan in Armenia, and in a surprise attack that winter he stormed Shahrbaraz's headquarters and attacked his troops in their winter billets.[120] Supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, together with the Avars and Slavs, the three unsuccessfully besieged Constantinople in 626,[121] while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius' brother Theodore.[122]
Meanwhile, Heraclius formed an alliance with the
Aftermath
The devastating impact of this last war, added to the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict, left both empires crippled. When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne, Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. The Sasanians were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation from Khosrau II's campaigns, religious unrest, and the increasing power of the provincial landholders.[126] The Byzantine Empire was also severely affected, with its financial reserves exhausted by the war and the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs.[127] Additionally, Anatolia was devastated by repeated Persian invasions; the Empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt was loosened by many years of Persian occupation.[128]
Neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the
Strategies and military tactics
Timeline of the Roman–Persian Wars | |
---|---|
Avar–Persian–Slav siege of Constantinople | |
627 | Persian defeat at Nineveh. |
629 | The Persians assassinate Khosrow II and agree to withdraw from all occupied territories. Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. |
When the Roman and Parthian Empires first collided in the 1st century BC, it appeared that Parthia had the potential to push its frontier to the
From the 4th century AD onwards, the Sasanians grew in strength and adopted the role of aggressor. They considered much of the land added to the Roman Empire in Parthian and early Sasanian times to rightfully belong to the Persian sphere.
Militarily, the Sasanians continued the Parthians' heavy dependence on cavalry troops: a combination of
On the other hand, the Persians adopted war engines from the Romans.
By the beginning of Sasanian rule, a number of buffer states existed between the empires. These were absorbed by the central state over time, and by the 7th century the last buffer state, the Arab
The Sasanians, and to a lesser extent the Parthians, practiced mass deportations to new cities as a tool of policy, not just the prisoners-of-war (such as those of the Battle of Edessa), but also the cities they captured, such as the deportation of the Antioch's people to Weh Antiok Khosrow, which led to the decline of the former. These deportations also initiated the spread of Christianity in Persia.[155]
The Persians seem to have been reluctant to resort to naval action.[156] There was some minor Sasanian naval action in 620–23, and the only major Byzantine navy's action was during the Siege of Constantinople (626).[citation needed]
Assessments
The Roman–Persian Wars have been characterized as "futile" and too "depressing and tedious to contemplate".[157] Prophetically, Cassius Dio noted their "never-ending cycle of armed confrontations" and observed that "it is shown by the facts themselves that [Severus'] conquest has been a source of constant wars and great expense to us. For it yields very little and uses up vast sums; and now that we have reached out to peoples who are neighbor of the Medes and the Parthians rather than of ourselves, we are always, one might say, fighting the battles of those peoples."[158] In the long series of wars between the two powers, the frontier in upper Mesopotamia remained more or less constant. Historians point out that the stability of the frontier over the centuries is remarkable, although Nisibis, Singara, Dara and other cities of upper Mesopotamia changed hands from time to time, and the possession of these frontier cities gave one empire a trade advantage over the other. As Frye states:[152]
One has the impression that the blood spilled in the warfare between the two states brought as little real gain to one side or the other as the few meters of land gained at terrible cost in the trench warfare of the First World War.
"How could it be a good thing to hand over one's dearest possessions to a stranger, a barbarian, the ruler of one's bitterest enemy, one whose good faith and sense of justice were untried, and, what is more, one who belonged to an alien and heathen faith?" |
Agathias (Histories, 4.26.6, translated by Averil Cameron) about the Persians, a judgment typical of the Roman view.[159] |
Both sides attempted to justify their respective military goals in both active and reactive ways. According to the
Historiography
The sources for the history of Parthia and the wars with Rome are scant and scattered. The Parthians followed the
The principal sources for the early Sasanian period are not contemporary. Among them the most important are the Greeks
For the period between 353 and 378, there is an eyewitness source to the main events on the eastern frontier in the Res Gestae of
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- ^ a b electricpulp.com. "Byzantine–Iranian Relations – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
- ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 1
- ^ Kia 2016, p. liii.
- ^ De Blois & van der Spek 2008, p. 137.
- ^ a b Ball (2000), 12–13; Dignas–Winter (2007), 9 (PDF)
- ^ Plutarch, Sulla, 5. 3–6
* Mackay (2004), 149; Sherwin-White (1994), 262 - ^ Bivar (1993), 46
* Sherwin-White (1994), 262–263 - ^ Sherwin-White (1994), 264
- ^ Plutarch, Crassus, 23–32
* Mackay (2004), 150 - ^ Bivar (1993), 56
- ^
Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum, XLII. 4 Archived 2008-05-11 at the Wayback Machine
* Bivar (1993), 56–57 - ^ Bivar (1993), 57
- ^
Justin, Historiarum Philippicarum, XLII. 4 Archived 2008-05-11 at the Wayback Machine ; Plutarch, Antony, 33–34
* Bivar (1993), 57–58 - ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, XLIX, 27–33
* Bivar (1993), 58–65 - ^ Sicker (2000), 162
- ^ Sicker (2000), 162–163
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* Sicker (2000), 163 - ^ Tacitus, Annals, XV. 27–29
* Rawlinson (2007), 286–287 - ^ Sicker (2000), 167
- ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXVIII, 33
* Sicker (2000), 167–168 - ^ Lightfoot (1990), 115: "Trajan succeeded in acquiring territory in these lands with a view to annexation, something which had not seriously been attempted before ... Although Hadrian abandoned all of Trajan's conquests ... the trend was not to be reversed. Further wars of annexation followed under Lucius Verus and Septimius Severus."; Sicker (2000), 167–168
- ^ Sicker (2000), 169
- ^ Herodian, Roman History, III, 9.1–12 Archived 2014-11-07 at the Wayback Machine
Campbell (2005), 6–7; Rawlinson (2007), 337–338 - ^ Herodian, Roman History, IV, 10.1–15.9 Archived 2015-05-04 at the Wayback Machine
Campbell (2005), 20 - ^ Herodian, Roman History, VI, 2.1–6 Archived 2014-11-05 at the Wayback Machine; Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXXX, 4.1–2
* Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 16 - ^ Herodian, Roman History, VI, 5.1–6 Archived 2015-04-03 at the Wayback Machine
* Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 24–28; Frye (1993), 124 - ^ Frye (1993), 124–125; Southern (2001), 234–235
- .
- Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
- ^ Frye (1968), 125
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- ^ Frye (1993), 125; Southern (2001), 235–236
- ^ Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 5; Sibylline Oracles, XIII, 155–171
* Frye (1993), 126; Southern (2001), 238 - ^ Dodgeon-Greatrex-Lieu (2002), I, 108–109, 112; Southern (2001), 241
- ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 38. 2–4; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, 18.1
- Frye (1968), 128; Southern (2001), 241
- ^ Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), 114
- ^ Frye (1968), 130; Southern (2001), 242
- ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 39. 33–36; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, 24–25.1
* Frye (1993), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243 - ^ Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 39. 33–36; Eutropius, Abridgment of Roman History, IX, 24–25.1
- Frye (1968), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243
- ^ Lenski 2002, p. 162.
- ^ Frye (1993), 130; Southern (2001), 242
- ^ Blockley 1997, p. 423.
- ^ Frye (1993), 137
- ISBN 978-0-520-03731-1p. 243
- ISBN 978-0-415-26315-3p. 143
- ^ Frye (1993), 138
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- ^ Bury (1923), XIV.1; Frye (1968), 145; Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 37–51
- ^ Procopius, Wars, I.7.1–2
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62 - ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XLIII
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62 - ^ Zacharias Rhetor, Historia Ecclesiastica, VII, 3–4
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 63 - ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I I, 69–71
- ^ Procopius, Wars, I.9.24
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77 - ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XC
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 74 - ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XCIII–XCIV
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77 - ^ a b Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77
- ^ On Procopius, see Henning Börm: Procopius and the East. In: Mischa Meier, Federico Montinaro: A Companion to Procopius of Caesarea. Brill, Boston 2022, pp. 310 ff.
- ^ Procopius, Wars, I.9.24
- Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77
- ^ Joshua the Stylite, XC
- Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 74
- ^ Procopius, Wars, I.11.23–30
* Greatrex (2005), 487; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 81–82 - ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 82
- ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 81–82
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 84
- ^ Zacharias Rhetor, Historia Ecclesiastica, IX, 2
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 83, 86 - ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 85
- ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 86
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 92–96
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 93
- ^ Evans (2000), 118; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 96–97
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 102; see H. Börm, "Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum", Chiron 36 (2006), 299ff.
- ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 102
- ^ "Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ^ Procopius, Wars, II.20.17–19
- Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 109–110
- ^ Procopius, Wars, II.21.30–32
- Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110
- ^ Corripus, Johannidos, I.68–98
- Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 111
- ^ a b Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113
- ^ Procopius, Wars, 28.7–11
- Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113
- ^ Procopius, Wars, 28.7–11
* Greatrex (2005), 489; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113 - ^ Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110; "Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ^ Procopius, Wars, 28.7–11
* Evans, Justinian (527–565 AD); Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113 - ^ Treadgold (1997), 204–205
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 205–207
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 204–207
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 209
- ^ Farrokh (2007), 236
- ^ Greatrex (2005), 489; Treadgold (1997), 211
- ^ Menander Protector, History, frag. 6.1. According to Greatrex (2005), 489, to many Romans this arrangement "appeared dangerous and indicative of weakness".
- ^ Evans, Justinian (527–565 AD)
- ^ John of Epiphania, History, 2 AncientSites.com Archived 2011-06-21 at the Wayback Machine gives an additional reason for the outbreak of the war: "[The Medians'] contentiousness increased even further ... when Justin did not deem to pay the Medians the five hundred pounds of gold each year previously agreed to under the peace treaties and let the Roman State remain forever a tributary of the Persians." See also, Greatrex (2005), 503–504
- ^ Treadgold (1997), 222
- ^ The great bastion of the Roman frontier was in Persian hands for the first time (Whitby [2000], 92–94).
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 152; Louth (2005), 113
- ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 246.11–27
* Whitby (2000), 92–94 - ^ a b
Theophylact, History, I, 9.4 Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine (PDF)
Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95 - ^ Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95–96
- ^ Soward, Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine (PDF); Treadgold (1997), 225; Whitby (2000), 96
- ^ Suny 1994, p. 25.
- ^ Mikaberidze 2015, p. 529.
- ^ Soward, Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine (PDF); Treadgold (1997), 226; Whitby (2000), 96
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 168-169
- ^ Theophylact, V, History, I, 3.11 Archived 2011-06-10 at the Wayback Machine and 15.1 (PDF)
* Louth (2005), 115; Treadgold (1997), 231–232 - ^ Foss (1975), 722
- ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 290–293
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 183–184 - ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 292–293
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 185–186 - ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 186–187
- ^ Haldon (1997), 41; Speck (1984), 178.
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 188–189
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 189–190
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 190–193, 196
- ^ The mint of Nicomedia ceased operating in 613, and Rhodes fell to the invaders in 622–623 (Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 193–197).
- ^ Kia 2016, p. 223.
- ^ Howard-Johnston 2006, p. 33.
- ^ Foss 1975, p. 725
- ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 85
- ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 196
- ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 303–304, 307
* Cameron (1979), 23; Grabar (1984), 37 - ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 304.25–306.7
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199 - ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 306–308
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199–202 - ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 308–312
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 202–205 - ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 316
* Cameron (1979), 5–6, 20–22 - ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 315–316
McBride (2005), 56 - ^ Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 209–212
- ^ Theophanes, Chronicle, 317–327
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227 - ^ Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912), passim; Speck (1984), 178
- ^ Howard-Johnston (2006), 9: "[Heraclius'] victories in the field over the following years and its political repercussions ... saved the main bastion of Christianity in the Near East and gravely weakened its old Zoroastrian rival."
- ^ Haldon (1997), 43–45, 66, 71, 114–15
- ^ Ambivalence toward Byzantine rule on the part of miaphysites may have lessened local resistance to the Arab expansion (Haldon [1997], 49–50).
- ^ Foss (1975), 746–47; Howard-Johnston (2006), xv
- ^ Liska (1998), 170
- ^ Haldon (1997), 49–50
- ^ Haldon (1997), 61–62; Howard-Johnston (2006), 9
- ^ Rawlinson (2007), 199: "The Parthian military system had not the elasticity of the Romans ... However loose and seemingly flexible, it was rigid in its uniformity; it never altered; it remained under the thirtieth Arsaces such as it had been under the first, improved in details perhaps, but essentially the same system." According to Michael Whitby (2000), 310, "the eastern armies preserved the Roman military reputation through to the end of the 6th century by capitalizing on available resources and showing a capacity to adapt to a variety of challenges".
- ^ a b Wheeler (2007), 259
- ^ a b Frye (2005), 473
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- ^ Cornuelle, An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military; Sidnell (2006), 273
- ^ According to Reno E. Gabba, the Roman army was reorganized over time after the impact of the Battle of Carrhae (Gabba [1966], 51–73).
- ^ The Cambridge History of Iran : "The Parthian tactics gradually became the standard method of warfare in the Roman empire. The ancient Persian tradition of large-scale hydraulic engineering was thus combined with the unique Roman experience in masonry. The Greco-Roman picture of the Persians as a nation of fierce and indomitable warriors contrasts strangely with another stereotype, the Persians as past masters of the art of refined living, of luxuriose vivere. The Persian influence on Roman religion would be enormous, were people allowed to call Mithraism a Persian religion."
- ^ Vegetius, III, Epitoma Rei Militaris, 26
* Verbruggen–Willard–Southern (1997), 4–5 - ISBN 9781857284959. Retrieved 31 March 2018 – via Google Books.
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- ^ Shahîd (1984), 24–25; Wagstaff (1985), 123–125
- ^ Frye (1993), 139; Levi (1994), 192
- A. Shapur Shahbazi, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, “DEPORTATIONS,” Encyclopædia Iranica, VII/3, pp. 297–312, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/deportations(accessed on 30 December 2012).
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Further reading
- Andres, Hansjoachim (2022). Bruderzwist. Strukturen und Methoden der Diplomatie zwischen Rom und Iran von der Teilung Armeniens bis zum Fünfzigjährigen Frieden. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. ISBN 978-3-515-13363-0.
- Blockley, Roger C. (1992). East Roman Foreign Policy. Formation and Conduct from Diocletian to Anastasius (ARCA 30). Leeds: Francis Cairns. ISBN 0-905205-83-9.
- Börm, Henning (2007). Prokop und die Perser. Untersuchungen zu den Römisch-Sasanidischen Kontakten in der ausgehenden Spätantike. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner. ISBN 978-3-515-09052-0.
- Börm, Henning (2008). ""Es war allerdings nicht so, dass sie es im Sinne eines Tributes erhielten, wie viele meinten ..." Anlässe und Funktion der persischen Geldforderungen an die Römer". Historia (in German). 57: 327–346. S2CID 252458547.
- Greatrex, Geoffrey B. (1998). Rome and Persia at War, 502–532. Rome: Francis Cairns. ISBN 0-905205-93-6.
- Isaac, Benjamin (1998). "The Eastern Frontier". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425 XIII. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30200-5.
- Kaegi, Walter E. (2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81459-6.
- Kettenhofen, Erich (1982). Die Römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka'be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ). Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients B 55. Wiesbaden.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Millar, Fergus (1982). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Archived from the original on 2011-06-04. Retrieved 2017-09-11.
- Mitchell, Stephen B. (2006). A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0857-6.
- Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. London und New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10058-5.
- Whitby, Michael (1988). The Emperor Maurice and his Historian. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822945-3.
External links
- Cataphracts and Siegecraft – Roman, Parthian and Sasanid military organisation.
- Alemani, Agustí. "Sixth Century Alania: between Byzantium, Sasanian Iran and the Turkic World" (PDF). Ēran ud Anērān. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I. Retrieved 2008-05-06.
- "Rome and Parthia at War". History Articles – Classical Europe and Mediterranean. All Empires – Online History Community. Retrieved 2008-05-16.
- "Sassanids vs Byzantines". History Articles – Medieval Europe. All Empires – Online History Community. Retrieved 2008-05-16.