Roman calendar

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"Roman month" redirects here. For the unit of military contribution in the Holy Roman Empire, see Roman Month.
For the Catholic liturgical calendar, see General Roman Calendar.

Museum of the Roman Theater of Caesaraugusta in Zaragoza, Spain
A reproduction of the Fasti Antiates Maiores, a painted wall-calendar from the late Roman Republic
intercalary month
("INTER") in the far right-hand column

The Roman calendar was the calendar used by the Roman Kingdom and Roman Republic. Although the term is primarily used for Rome's pre-Julian calendars, it is often used inclusively of the Julian calendar established by the reforms of the Dictator Julius Caesar and Emperor Augustus in the late 1st century BC.[a]

According to most Roman accounts,

first-quarter moon, and the full moon respectively. To a late date, the College of Pontiffs formally proclaimed each of these days on the Capitoline Hill and Roman dating counted down inclusively towards the next such day in any month. (For example, the year-end festival of Terminalia on 23 February was called VII. Kal. Mart.
, the 6th day before the March kalends.)

Romulus's successor

Roman religious festivals and other activities in their proper seasons
.

Modern historians dispute various points of this account. It is possible the original calendar was agriculturally based, observational of the seasons and stars rather the moon, with ten months of varying length filling the entire year. If this ever existed, it would have changed to the lunisolar system later credited to Numa during the kingdom or

Juno
to solemnize each kalends.

It is clear that, for a variety of reasons, the intercalation necessary for the system's accuracy was not always observed. Astronomical events recorded in

Pompey
kept Caesar out of the city for years at a time, the calendar was repeatedly left unadjusted.

Victorious in civil war, Caesar

bissextile
(bis sextum) leap day every three years due to their inclusive counting. In order to bring the calendar back to its proper place, Augustus was obliged to suspend intercalation for one or two decades.

At 365.25 days, the Julian calendar remained slightly longer than the solar year (365.24 days). By the 16th century, the date of Easter had shifted so far away from the vernal equinox that Pope Gregory XIII ordered a further correction to the calendar method, resulting in the establishment of the modern Gregorian calendar.

History

Fasti Praenestini, containing the months of January, March, April, and December and a portion of February.[1]

Prehistoric calendar

The original Roman

festivals, this was presumably avoided through some form of arbitrary curtailment or intercalation[5]
or through the suspension of the calendar during winter.

Against this,

feriae conceptivae, "proclaimed festivals") like the Sementivae that were dependent on local conditions.[16] Michels suggests this was the original state of all ancient festivals, marking divisions between the seasons and occasions within them.[16]

Legendary 10-month calendar

The Romans themselves usually described their first organized year as one with ten fixed months,

Licinius Macer's lost history apparently similarly stated that even the earliest Roman calendar employed intercalation.[23][24][25]

Later Roman writers usually credited this calendar to

a priori interpretation by late Republican writers.[28]

Calendar of Romulus
English Latin Meaning Length in days[17][18]
March Mensis Martius Month of Mars 31
April
Mensis Aprilis
 Month of Apru (Aphrodite)[29] 30
May
Mensis Maius
 Month of
Maia[30]
 31
June Mensis Iunius Month of Juno 30
July
Mensis Quintilis
Mensis Quinctilis[31]
 Fifth Month 31
August
Mensis Sextilis
 Sixth Month 30
September Mensis September Seventh Month 30
October Mensis October Eighth Month 31
November Mensis November Ninth Month 30
December Mensis December Tenth Month 30
Length of the year: 304

Other traditions existed alongside this one, however. Plutarch's Parallel Lives recounts that Romulus's calendar had been solar but adhered to the general principle that the year should last for 360 days. Months were employed secondarily and haphazardly, with some counted as 20 days and others as 35 or more.[32][33] Plutarch records that while one tradition is that Numa added two new months to a ten-month calendar, another version is that January and February were originally the last two months of the year and Numa just moved them to the start of the year, so that January (named after a peaceful ruler called Janus) would come before March (which was named for Mars, the god of war).[34]

Rome's 8-day week, the

Roman legend variously to Romulus and Servius Tullius
.

Republican calendar

The attested calendar of the

synodic months (368+3⁄4 days), which align every fourth year after two additions of an intercalary month (mensis intercalaris), sometimes known as Mercedonius.[5]

According to Livy, it was Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome (715–673 BC), who divided the year into twelve lunar months (History of Rome, I.19). Fifty days, says Censorinus, were added to the calendar and a day taken from each month of thirty days to provide for the two winter months: Januarius (January) and Februarius (February), both of which had 28 days (The Natal Day, XX). This was a lunar year of 354 days but, because of the Roman superstition about even numbers, an additional day was added to January to make the calendar 355 days long. Auspiciously, each month now had an odd number of days: Martius (March), Maius (May), Quinctilis (July), and October continued to have 31; the other months, 29, except for February, which had 28 days. Considered unlucky, it was devoted to rites of purification (februa) and expiation appropriate to the last month of the year. (Although these legendary beginnings attest to the venerability of the lunar calendar of the Roman Republic, its historical origin probably was the publication of a revised calendar by the Decemviri in 450 BC as part of the Twelve Tables, Rome's first code of law.) [4]

The inequality between the lunar year of 355 days and the

odd numbers.[36]

These Pythagorean-based changes to the Roman calendar were generally credited by the Romans to

lunar and Greek years—and a biennial intercalary month of 22 days called Mercedonius.[32][33]

According to Livy's

Roman priests continued to treat January and February as the last months of the calendar throughout the Republican period.[44]

Roman Republican calendar (c. 700 BC or c. 450 BC – 46 BC)
English Latin Meaning Length in days[45][46][32][33]
1st
year
(cmn.) 		2nd
year
(leap) 		3rd
year
(cmn.) 		4th
year
(leap)
1. January I.
Mensis Ianuarius
 Month of Janus
29
29
29
29
2. February II.
Mensis Februarius
 Month of the Februa
28
23
28
23
  Intercalary Month   Intercalaris Mensis (Mercedonius)   Month of Wages  
27
  
28
3. March III. Mensis Martius Month of Mars
31
31
31
31
4. April IV.
Mensis Aprilis
 Month of Aphrodite – from which the Etruscan Apru might have been derived
29
29
29
29
5. May V.
Mensis Maius
 Month of Maia
31
31
31
31
6. June VI. Mensis Iunius Month of Juno
29
29
29
29
7. July VII.
Mensis Quintilis
 Fifth Month (from the earlier calendar starting in March)
31
31
31
31
8. August VIII.
Mensis Sextilis
 Sixth Month
29
29
29
29
9. September IX. Mensis September Seventh Month
29
29
29
29
10. October X. Mensis October Eighth Month
31
31
31
31
11. November XI. Mensis November Ninth Month
29
29
29
29
12. December XII. Mensis December Tenth Month
29
29
29
29
Whole year: 355 377 355 378

According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, to correct the mismatch of the correspondence between months and seasons due to the excess of one day of the Roman average year over the tropical year, the insertion of the intercalary month was modified according to the scheme: common year (355 days), leap year with 23-day February followed by 27-day Mercedonius (377 days), common year, leap year with 23-day February followed by 28-day Mercedonius (378 days), and so on for the first 16 years of a 24-year cycle. In the last 8 years, the intercalation took place with the month of Mercedonius only 27 days, except the last intercalation which did not happen. Hence, there would be a typical common year followed by a leap year of 377 days for the next 6 years and the remaining 2 years would sequentially be common years. The result of this twenty-four-year pattern was of great precision for the time: 365.25 days, as shown by the following calculation:

The consuls' terms of office were not always a modern calendar year, but ordinary consuls were elected or appointed annually. The traditional list of Roman consuls used by the Romans to date their years began in 509 BC.[47]

Flavian reform

Gnaeus Flavius, a secretary (scriba) to censor App. Claudius Caecus, introduced a series of reforms in 304 BC.[48] Their exact nature is uncertain, although he is thought to have begun the custom of publishing the calendar in advance of the month, depriving the priests of some of their power but allowing for a more consistent calendar for official business.[49]

Julian reform

Main article: Julian calendar

leap day
every fourth year to bring the Roman calendar into close agreement with the solar year. The year 46 BC was the last of the old system and included three intercalary months, the first inserted in February and two more—Intercalaris Prior and Posterior—before the kalends of December.

Later reforms

Main article: Byzantine calendar

After

August (Augustus) in his honor.[52][53][46][e]

In large part, this calendar continued unchanged under the

Alexandrian calendar, which Augustus had adapted from their wandering ancient calendar to maintain its alignment with Rome's.) A few emperors altered the names of the months after themselves or their family, but such changes were abandoned by their successors. Diocletian began the 15-year indiction cycles beginning from the AD 297 census;[47] these became the required format for official dating under Justinian. Constantine formally established the 7-day week by making Sunday an official holiday in 321.[citation needed] Consular dating became obsolete following the abandonment of appointing nonimperial consuls in AD 541.[47] The Roman method of numbering the days of the month never became widespread in the Hellenized eastern provinces and was eventually abandoned by the Byzantine Empire in its calendar
.

Days

Main article:
Kalends

Roman dates were

counted inclusively forward to the next one of three principal days within each month:[54]

These are thought to reflect a prehistoric lunar calendar, with the kalends proclaimed after the sighting of the first sliver of the new crescent moon a day or two after the

Jupiter.[56][57]
The day before each was known as its eve (pridie); the day after each (postridie) was considered particularly unlucky.

The days of the month were expressed in early Latin using the

Greek,[59] reflecting the increasing use of such date phrases as an absolute phrase able to function as the object of another preposition,[55] or simply originated in a mistaken agreement of dies with the preposition ante once it moved to the beginning of the expression.[55] In late Latin
, this idiom was sometimes abandoned in favor of again using the ablative of time.

The kalends were the day for payment of debts and the account books (kalendaria) kept for them gave English its word calendar. The public Roman calendars were the fasti, which designated the religious and legal character of each month's days. The Romans marked each day of such calendars with the letters:[60]

  • F (fastus, "permissible") on days when it was legal to initiate action in the courts of civil law (dies fasti, "allowed days")
  • C (comitialis) on fasti days during which the Roman people could hold
    assemblies
    (dies comitiales)
  • N (nefastus) on days when political and judicial activities were prohibited (dies nefasti)
  • NP (uncertain)[g] on public holidays (feriae)
  • QRCF (uncertain)
    rex sacrorum
    ) could convene an assembly
  • EN (endotercissus, an archaic form of intercissus, "halved") on days when most political and religious activities were prohibited in the morning and evening due to sacrifices being prepared or offered but were acceptable for a period in the middle of the day

Each day was also marked by a letter from A to H to indicate its place within the

nundinal cycle
of market days.

Weeks

Fasti Praenestini for the month of April (Aprilis
), showing its nundinal letters on the left side
Main articles: Nundinae, Planetary hours, and Week

The

January
. Intercalation was supposedly used to avoid such coincidences, even after the Julian reform of the calendar.

The

Constantine made Sunday (dies Solis) an official day of rest in AD 321. The hebdomadal week was also reckoned as a cycle of letters from A to G; these were adapted for Christian use as the dominical letters
.

Months

The names of Roman months originally functioned as adjectives (e.g., the January kalends occur in the January month) before being treated as substantive nouns in their own right (e.g., the kalends of January occur in January). Some of their etymologies are well-established: January and March honor the gods

Juno[75] or derive from archaic terms for "senior" and "junior". A few emperors
attempted to add themselves to the calendar after Augustus, but without enduring success.

In classical Latin, the days of each month were usually reckoned as:[58]

Days of the month in the Roman Calendar
Days in month 31d 31d 30d 29d 28d

Months before Julian reform		 Mar
May
Jul
Oct		 Jan Apr
Jun Aug
Sep Nov
Dec		 Feb

Months after Julian reform		 Mar
May
Jul
Oct		 Jan
Aug
Dec		 Apr
Jun
Sep
Nov		 (Feb) Feb
Day name in English Day name in Latin Abbr [f][i] [j] [k] [l] [m]
On the Kalends Kalendis Kal. 1 1 1 1 1
The day after the Kalends postridie Kalendas 2 2 2 2 2
The 6th day before the Nones ante diem sextum Nonas a.d. VI Non. 2        
The 5th day before the Nones ante diem quintum Nonas a.d. V Non. 3        
The 4th day before the Nones ante diem quartum Nonas a.d. IV Non. 4 2 2 2 2
The 3rd day before the Nones ante diem tertium Nonas a.d. III Non. 5 3 3 3 3
On the day before the Nones Pridie Nonas Prid. Non. 6 4 4 4 4
On the Nones Nonis Non. 7 5 5 5 5
The day after the Nones postridie Nonas 8 6 6 6 6
The 8th day before the Ides ante diem octavum Idus a.d. VIII Eid. 8 6 6 6 6
The 7th day before the Ides ante diem septimum Idus a.d. VII Eid. 9 7 7 7 7
The 6th day before the Ides ante diem sextum Idus a.d. VI Eid. 10 8 8 8 8
The 5th day before the Ides ante diem quintum Idus a.d. V Eid. 11 9 9 9 9
The 4th day before the Ides ante diem quartum Idus a.d. IV Eid. 12 10 10 10 10
The 3rd day before the Ides ante diem tertium Idus a.d. III Eid. 13 11 11 11 11
On the day before the Ides Pridie Idus Prid. Eid. 14 12 12 12 12
On the Ides Idibus Eid. 15 13 13 13 13
The day after the Ides postridie Idus 16 14 14 14 14
The 19th day before the Kalends ante diem undevicesimum Kalendas a.d. XIX Kal.   14      
The 18th day before the Kalends ante diem duodevicesimum Kalendas a.d. XVIII Kal.   15 14    
The 17th day before the Kalends ante diem septimum decimum Kalendas a.d. XVII Kal. 16 16 15 14  
The 16th day before the Kalends ante diem sextum decimum Kalendas a.d. XVI Kal. 17 17 16 15 14
The 15th day before the Kalends ante diem quintum decimum Kalendas a.d. XV Kal. 18 18 17 16 15
The 14th day before the Kalends ante diem quartum decimum Kalendas a.d. XIV Kal. 19 19 18 17 16
The 13th day before the Kalends ante diem tertium decimum Kalendas a.d. XIII Kal. 20 20 19 18 17
The 12th day before the Kalends ante diem duodecimum Kalendas a.d. XII Kal. 21 21 20 19 18
The 11th day before the Kalends ante diem undecimum Kalendas a.d. XI Kal. 22 22 21 20 19
The 10th day before the Kalends ante diem decimum Kalendas a.d. X Kal. 23 23 22 21 20
The 9th day before the Kalends ante diem nonum Kalendas a.d. IX Kal. 24 24 23 22 21
The 8th day before the Kalends ante diem octavum Kalendas a.d. VIII Kal. 25 25 24 23 22
The 7th day before the Kalends ante diem septimum Kalendas a.d. VII Kal. 26 26 25 24 23
The 6th day before the Kalends ante diem sextum Kalendas a.d. VI Kal. 27 27 26 25 24[n]
The 5th day before the Kalends ante diem quintum Kalendas a.d. V Kal. 28 28 27 26 25
The 4th day before the Kalends ante diem quartum Kalendas a.d. IV Kal. 29 29 28 27 26
The 3rd day before the Kalends ante diem tertium Kalendas a.d. III Kal. 30 30 29 28 27
On the day before the Kalends Pridie Kalendas Prid. Kal. 31 31 30 29 28

Dates after the ides count forward to the kalends of the next month and are expressed as such. For example, March 19 was expressed as "the 14th day before the April Kalends" (a.d. XIV Kal. Apr.), without a mention of March itself. The day after a kalends, nones, or ides was also often expressed as the "day after" (postridie) owing to their special status as particularly unlucky "black days".

The anomalous status of the new 31-day months under the Julian calendar was an effect of Caesar's desire to avoid affecting the festivals tied to the nones and ides of various months. However, because the dates at the ends of the month all counted forward to the next kalends, they were all shifted by one or two days by the change. This created confusion with regard to certain anniversaries. For instance, Augustus's birthday on the 23rd day of September was a.d. VIII Kal. Oct. in the old calendar but a.d. IX Kal. Oct. under the new system. The ambiguity caused honorary festivals to be held on either or both dates.

Intercalation

Main article: Mercedonius

The Republican calendar only had 355 days, which meant that it would quickly unsynchronize from the solar year, causing, for example, agricultural festivals to occur out of season. The Roman solution to this problem was to periodically lengthen the calendar by adding extra days within February. February was broken into two parts, each with an odd number of days. The first part ended with the Terminalia on the 23rd (a.d. VII Kal. Mart.), which was considered the end of the religious year; the five remaining days beginning with the Regifugium on the 24th (a.d. VI Kal. Mart.) formed the second part; and the intercalary month Mercedonius was inserted between them. In such years, the days between the ides and the Regifugium were counted down to either the Intercalary Kalends or to the Terminalia. The intercalary month counted down to nones and ides on its 5th and 13th day in the manner of the other short months. The remaining days of the month counted down towards the March Kalends, so that the end of Mercedonius and the second part of February were indistinguishable to the Romans, one ending on a.d. VII Kal. Mart. and the other picking up at a.d. VI Kal. Mart. and bearing the normal festivals of such dates.

Apparently because of the confusion of these changes or uncertainty as to whether an intercalary month would be ordered, dates after the February ides are attested as sometimes counting down towards the

Quirinalia (February 17), the Feralia (February 21), or the Terminalia (February 23)[76]
rather than the intercalary or March kalends.

The third-century writer Censorinus says:

When it was thought necessary to add (every two years) an intercalary month of 22 or 23 days, so that the civil year should correspond to the natural (solar) year, this intercalation was in preference made in February, between the Terminalia [23rd] and Regifugium [24th].[77]

The fifth-century writer Macrobius says that the Romans intercalated 22 and 23 days in alternate years;[78] the intercalation was placed after February 23 and the remaining five days of February followed.[79] To avoid the nones falling on a nundine, where necessary an intercalary day was inserted "in the middle of the Terminalia, where they placed the intercalary month".[80] This appears to have been generally correct. In 170 BC, Intercalaris began on the second day after February 23[81] and, in 167 BC, it began on the day after February 23.[82]

Varro, writing in the first century BC, says "the twelfth month was February, and when intercalations take place the five last days of this month are removed."[83]
Since all the days after the Ides of Intercalaris were counted down to the beginning of March, the month had either 27 days (making 377 for the year) or 28 (making 378 for the year).

There is another theory which says that in intercalary years February had 23 or 24 days and Intercalaris had 27. No date is offered for the Regifugium in 378-day years.[84] Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days. This refinement brings the calendar back in line with the seasons and averages the length of the year to 365.25 days over 24 years.

The Pontifex Maximus determined when an intercalary month was to be inserted. On average, this happened in alternate years. The system of aligning the year through intercalary months broke down at least twice: the first time was during and after the

Roman magistrates
was defined in terms of a Roman calendar year, a Pontifex Maximus had an incentive to lengthen a year in which he or his allies were in power or shorten a year in which his political opponents held office.

Although there are many stories to interpret the intercalation, a period of 22 or 23 days is always 1⁄4 synodic month short. Obviously, the month beginning shifts forward (from the new moon, to the third quarter, to the full moon, to the first quarter, back the new moon) after intercalation.

Years

Main article: List of Roman consuls
A fragment of an imperial consular list[85]

As mentioned above, Rome's legendary 10-month calendar notionally lasted for 304 days but was usually thought to make up the rest of the

leap day doubled in length every fourth year, almost equivalent to the present Gregorian system
.

The

those based on Diocletian's persecutions, Christ's incarnation, and the supposed age of the world
.

The Romans did not have records of their early calendars but, like modern historians, assumed the year originally began in March on the basis of the names of the months following June. The consul

Spain during the Celtiberian Wars, before which they had occurred on March 15 (Eid. Mart.).[87] There is reason to believe the inauguration date had been May 1during the 3rd century BC until 222 BC[citation needed] and Livy mentions earlier inaugurations on May 15 (Eid. Mai.), July 1 (Kal. Qui.), August 1 (Kal. Sex.), October 1(Kal. Oct.), and December 15 (Eid. Dec.).[88][where?] Under the Julian calendar, the year began on January 1 but years of the Indiction
cycle began on September 1.

In addition to

medieval Spain.[citation needed
]

Conversion to Julian or Gregorian dates

The continuity of names from the Roman to the

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus and Publius Licinius Crassus" (usually given as "205 BC") actually began on March 15, 205BC, and ended on March 14, 204 BC, according to the Roman calendar but may have begun as early as November or December 206 BC owing to its misalignment. Even following the establishment of the Julian calendar
, the leap years were not applied correctly by the Roman priests, meaning dates are a few days out of their "proper" place until a few decades into Augustus's reign.

Given the paucity of records regarding the state of the calendar and its intercalation, historians have reconstructed the correspondence of Roman dates to their Julian and Gregorian equivalents from disparate sources. There are detailed accounts of the decades leading up to the Julian reform, particularly the speeches and letters of

nundinal cycle and a few known synchronisms—e.g., a Roman date in terms of the Attic calendar and Olympiad—are used to generate contested chronologies back to the start of the First Punic War in 264 BC. Beyond that, dates are roughly known based on clues such as the dates of harvests and seasonal religious festivals
.

See also

Notes

  1. ancient Greek calendars; and the Gregorian calendar, which refined the Julian system to bring it into still closer alignment with the tropical year
    .
  2. ^ Two days in a row were given the same date. This practice continued well into the sixteenth century.
  3. ^ Plutarch reports this tradition while claiming that the months had more probably predated or originated with Romulus.[32][33]
  4. ^ This equivalence was first described by Stanyan in his history of ancient Greece.[40]
  5. ^ There are some documents which state the month had been renamed as early as 26 or 23 BC, but the date of the Lex Pacuvia is certain.
  6. ^ a b c The original 31-day months of the Roman calendar were March, May, Quintilis or July, and October.
  7. ^ The NP days are sometimes thought to mark days when political and judicial activities were prohibited only until noon, standing for nefastus priore.
  8. ^ The QRCF days are sometimes supposed, on the basis of the Fasti Viae Lanza which gives it as Q. Rex C. F., to stand for "Permissible when the King Has Entered the Comitium" (Quando Rex Comitiavit Fas).[61]
  9. ^ The 31-day months of prior to the Julian reform, March, May, Quintilis (July), and October, continued using the old system with their Nones on the 9th and Ides on the 15th.
  10. ^ The 31-day months established by the Julian reform, January, Sextilis (August), and December, used a new system with their Nones on the 7th and Ides on the 13th.
  11. ^ The 30-day months established by the Julian reform were April, June, September, and November.
  12. ^ In leap years late in the imperial period, February was reckoned as a 29 day month with all days lasting 24 hours.
  13. ^ In leap years early period after the Julian reform, February had 29 days but was reckoned as a 28 day month by treating the sixth day before the March Kalends as lasting for 48 hours.
  14. ^ After the Julian reform until late in the imperial period, this day was reckoned to last 48 hours during a leap year.

References

Citations

  1. ^ Enc. Brit. (1911), p. 193.
  2. ^ Mommsen & al. (1864), p. 216.
  3. ^ Michels (1949), pp. 323–324.
  4. ^ a b c d e Grout (2023).
  5. ^ a b c d e f g Mommsen & al. (1864), p. 218.
  6. ^ a b c Michels (1949), p. 330.
  7. The Natal Day, Ch. XXII
    .
  8. On Agriculture
    .
  9. Farming
    .
  10. Vergil, Georgics
    .
  11. On Farming
    .
  12. ^ Pliny, Natural History.
  13. On Farming
    .
  14. ^ Wissowa (1896).
  15. ^ Michels (1949), p. 322.
  16. ^ a b Michels (1949), p. 331.
  17. ^ a b c d Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12, §3.
  18. ^ a b Kaster (2011), p. 137.
  19. ^ Mommsen & al. (1864), p. 217.
  20. ^ Censorinus, Macrobius, and Solinus, cited in Key (1875)
  21. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12, §39.
  22. ^ Kaster (2011), p. 155.
  23. ^
    The Natal Day, Ch. XX
    .
  24. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 13, §20.
  25. ^ Kaster (2011), p. 165.
  26. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12, §§5 & 38.
  27. ^ Kaster (2011), pp. 137 & 155.
  28. ^ a b Rüpke (2011), p. 23.
  29. ^ "April". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Randomhouse Inc. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
  30. ^ "May". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Randomhouse Inc. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
  31. ^ Blackburn & al. (1999), p. 669.
  32. ^ a b c d e Plutarch, Life of Numa section XVIII.
  33. ^ a b c d e Perrin (1914), pp. 368 ff.
  34. ^ Plutarch, Life of Numa section XIX
  35. ^ Rüpke (2011), p. 40
  36. ^ Mommsen & al. (1864), p. 219.
  37. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12, §34.
  38. ^ Kaster (2011), p. 153.
  39. ^ Roberts (1905), Book I, Ch. 19, §6.
  40. ^ Stanyan (1707), p. 330.
  41. ^ 47.13 and 47.14: "[47.13] In the five hundred and ninety-eighth year after the founding of the city, the consuls began to enter upon their office on 1 January. [47.14] The cause of this change in the date of the elections was a rebellion in Hispania."
  42. ^ Ovid, Book II.
  43. ^ Kline (2004), Book II, Introduction.
  44. ^ Fowler (1899), p. 5.
  45. ^ Macrobius.
  46. ^ a b c Kaster (2011).
  47. ^ a b c d e f g h i Mathieson (2003), p. 14.
  48. ^ Michels (1949), p. 340.
  49. ^ Lanfranchi (2013).
  50. ^ Pliny, Book XVIII, Ch. 211.
  51. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 14, §2.
  52. ^ Rotondi (1912), p. 441.
  53. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 12.
  54. ^ a b c d Beck (1838), p. 175.
  55. ^ a b c d e Beck (1838), p. 176.
  56. ^ Ovid, Book I, ll. 55–56.
  57. ^ Kline (2004), Book I, Introduction.
  58. ^ a b Beck (1838), p. 177.
  59. ^ Smyth (1920), §§1582–1587.
  60. ^ Scullard (1981), pp. 44–45.
  61. ^ Rüpke (2011), pp. 26–27.
  62. ^ Brind'Amour (1983), pp. 256–275.
  63. ^ "January, n.", OED.
  64. ^ "March, n.2", OED.
  65. ^ "July, n.", OED.
  66. ^ "August, n.", OED.
  67. ^ "†quintile, n.2", OED.
  68. ^ "sextile, adj. and n.", OED.
  69. ^ a b "September, n.", OED.
  70. ^ "October, n.", OED.
  71. ^ "November, n.", OED.
  72. ^ "December, n.", OED.
  73. ^ "February, n.", OED.
  74. ^ "May, n.2", OED.
  75. ^ "June, n.", OED.
  76. which?
    ]
  77. ^ Censorinus, The Natal Day, 20.28, tr. William Maude, New York 1900, available at [1].
  78. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 13, §12.
  79. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 13, §15.
  80. ^ Macrobius, Book I, Ch. 13, §16, 19.
  81. ^ Livy, Book XLIII, Ch. 11, §13.
  82. ^ Livy, Book XLV, Ch. 44, §3.
  83. ^ a b Varro, On the Latin language, 6.13, tr. Roland Kent, London 1938, available at [2].
  84. ^ Michels (1967).
  85. ^ Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum I, CIL VI.
  86. ^ a b Mathieson (2003), p. 15.
  87. ^ Roberts (1905), Book XLVII.
  88. ^ Roberts (1905).

Bibliography

External links

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