Roman Empire
Roman Empire
| |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
27 BC–AD 395 (unified)[1] AD 395–476/480 (Western) AD 395–1453 (Eastern) | |||||||||||
Capital |
| ||||||||||
Common languages | |||||||||||
Religion |
| ||||||||||
Demonym(s) | Roman | ||||||||||
Government | Semi-elective absolute monarchy (de facto) | ||||||||||
• Emperor | (List) | ||||||||||
Historical era | |||||||||||
Area | |||||||||||
25 BC[15] | 2,750,000 km2 (1,060,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||
AD 117[15][16] | 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||
AD 390[15] | 3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||
• 25 BC[17] | 56,800,000 | ||||||||||
Currency | Sestertius,[e] aureus, solidus, nomisma | ||||||||||
|
The Roman Empire
Rome had expanded its rule to most of the
The
Due to the Empire's extent and endurance, its institutions and culture had a lasting influence on the development of language, religion, art, architecture, literature, philosophy, law, and forms of government across its territories. Latin evolved into the Romance languages while Medieval Greek became the language of the East. The Empire's adoption of Christianity resulted in the formation of medieval Christendom. Roman and Greek art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance. Rome's architectural tradition served as the basis for Romanesque, Renaissance and Neoclassical architecture, influencing Islamic architecture. The rediscovery of classical science and technology (which formed the basis for Islamic science) in medieval Europe contributed to the Scientific Renaissance and Scientific Revolution. Many modern legal systems, such as the Napoleonic Code, descend from Roman law. On the other hand, Rome's republican institutions have influenced the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period, the early United States, and modern democratic republics.
History
Transition from Republic to Empire
Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC, though not outside the Italian peninsula until the 3rd century BC. Thus, it was an "empire" (a great power) long before it had an emperor.[20] The Republic was not a nation-state in the modern sense, but a network of self-ruled towns (with varying degrees of independence from the Senate) and provinces administered by military commanders. It was governed by annually elected magistrates (Roman consuls above all) in conjunction with the Senate.[21] The 1st century BC was a time of political and military upheaval, which ultimately led to rule by emperors.[22][23][24] The consuls' military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium, meaning "command" (though typically in a military sense).[25] Occasionally, successful consuls were given the honorary title imperator (commander); this is the origin of the word emperor, since this title was always bestowed to the early emperors.[26]
Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies, and
Pax Romana
The 200 years that began with Augustus's rule is traditionally regarded as the ]
Transition from Classical to Late Antiquity
In the view of contemporary Greek historian Cassius Dio, the accession of Commodus in 180 marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold to one of rust and iron",[29] a comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbon, to take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the Empire's decline.[30][31]
In 212, during the reign of
Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate
Fall in the West and survival in the East
The
Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring
Geography and demography
The Roman Empire was
Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic, though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century, when Roman control in Europe, Africa, and Asia was strengthened. Under Augustus, a "global map of the known world" was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, coinciding with the creation of the most comprehensive political geography that survives from antiquity, the Geography of Strabo.[48] When Augustus died, the account of his achievements (Res Gestae) prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of the Empire.[49] Geography alongside meticulous written records were central concerns of Roman Imperial administration.[50]
The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan (r. 98–117),[51] encompassing 5 million square kilometres.[15][16] The traditional population estimate of 55–60 million inhabitants[52] accounted for between one-sixth and one-fourth of the world's total population[53] and made it the most populous unified political entity in the West until the mid-19th century.[54] Recent demographic studies have argued for a population peak from 70 million to more than 100 million.[55] Each of the three largest cities in the Empire – Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch – was almost twice the size of any European city at the beginning of the 17th century.[56]
As the historian Christopher Kelly described it:
Then the empire stretched from
Mediterranean ... referred to by its conquerors as mare nostrum—'our sea'.[52]
Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire. Borders (fines) were marked, and the frontiers (limites) patrolled.[51] The most heavily fortified borders were the most unstable.[23] Hadrian's Wall, which separated the Roman world from what was perceived as an ever-present barbarian threat, is the primary surviving monument of this effort.[57]
Languages
Latin and Greek were the main languages of the Empire,[h] but the Empire was deliberately multilingual.[62] Andrew Wallace-Hadrill says "The main desire of the Roman government was to make itself understood".[63] At the start of the Empire, knowledge of Greek was useful to pass as educated nobility and knowledge of Latin was useful for a career in the military, government, or law.[64] Bilingual inscriptions indicate the everyday interpenetration of the two languages.[65]
Latin and Greek's mutual linguistic and cultural influence is a complex topic.[66] Latin words incorporated into Greek were very common by the early imperial era, especially for military, administration, and trade and commerce matters.[67] Greek grammar, literature, poetry and philosophy shaped Latin language and culture.[68][69]
There was never a legal requirement for Latin in the Empire, but it represented a certain status.[71] High standards of Latin, Latinitas, started with the advent of Latin literature.[72] Due to the flexible language policy of the Empire, a natural competition of language emerged that spurred Latinitas, to defend Latin against the stronger cultural influence of Greek.[73] Over time Latin usage was used to project power and a higher social class.[74][75] Most of the emperors were bilingual but had a preference for Latin in the public sphere for political reasons, a "rule" that first started during the Punic Wars.[76] Different emperors up until Justinian would attempt to require the use of Latin in various sections of the administration but there is no evidence that a linguistic imperialism existed during the early Empire.[77]
After all freeborn inhabitants were universally enfranchised in 212, many Roman citizens would have lacked a knowledge of Latin.[78] The wide use of Koine Greek was what enabled the spread of Christianity and reflects its role as the lingua franca of the Mediterranean during the time of the Empire.[79] Following Diocletian's reforms in the 3rd century CE, there was a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the west.[80] Spoken Latin later fragmented into the incipient romance languages in the 7th century CE following the collapse of the Empire's west.[81]
The dominance of Latin and Greek among the literate elite obscure the continuity of other spoken languages within the Empire.
Society
The Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "astonishing cohesive capacity" to create shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples.
Roman society had multiple, overlapping
The blurring of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led to increased
Legal status
According to the
Women in Roman law
Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in the military. A mother's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos ("children born of two Roman citizens").[i] A Roman woman kept her own family name (nomen) for life. Children most often took the father's name, with some exceptions.[110] Women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business.[111] Inscriptions throughout the Empire honour women as benefactors in funding public works, an indication they could hold considerable fortunes.[112]
The archaic manus marriage in which the woman was subject to her husband's authority was largely abandoned by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage. Technically she remained under her father's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated.[113] This arrangement was a factor in the degree of independence Roman women enjoyed compared to many other cultures up to the modern period:[114] although she had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free of his direct scrutiny in daily life,[115] and her husband had no legal power over her.[116] Although it was a point of pride to be a "one-man woman" (univira) who had married only once, there was little stigma attached to divorce, nor to speedy remarriage after being widowed or divorced.[117] Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will.[118] A mother's right to own and dispose of property, including setting the terms of her will, gave her enormous influence over her sons into adulthood.[119]
As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order,
Slaves and the law
At the time of Augustus, as many as 35% of the people in Roman Italy were slaves,[123] making Rome one of five historical "slave societies" in which slaves constituted at least a fifth of the population and played a major role in the economy.[j][123] Slavery was a complex institution that supported traditional Roman social structures as well as contributing economic utility.[124] In urban settings, slaves might be professionals such as teachers, physicians, chefs, and accountants; the majority of slaves provided trained or unskilled labour. Agriculture and industry, such as milling and mining, relied on the exploitation of slaves. Outside Italy, slaves were on average an estimated 10 to 20% of the population, sparse in Roman Egypt but more concentrated in some Greek areas. Expanding Roman ownership of arable land and industries affected preexisting practices of slavery in the provinces.[125] Although slavery has often been regarded as waning in the 3rd and 4th centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until gradually ceasing in the 6th and 7th centuries with the disintegration of the complex Imperial economy.[126]
Laws pertaining to slavery were "extremely intricate".
Following the Servile Wars of the Republic, legislation under Augustus and his successors shows a driving concern for controlling the threat of rebellions through limiting the size of work groups, and for hunting down fugitive slaves.[134] Over time slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. A bill of sale might contain a clause stipulating that the slave could not be employed for prostitution, as prostitutes in ancient Rome were often slaves.[135] The burgeoning trade in eunuchs in the late 1st century prompted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will "for lust or gain".[136]
Roman slavery was not based on race.[137] Generally, slaves in Italy were indigenous Italians,[138] with a minority of foreigners (including both slaves and freedmen) estimated at 5% of the total in the capital at its peak, where their number was largest. Foreign slaves had higher mortality and lower birth rates than natives, and were sometimes even subjected to mass expulsions.[139] The average recorded age at death for the slaves of the city of Rome was seventeen and a half years (17.2 for males; 17.9 for females).[140]
During the period of republican expansionism when slavery had become pervasive, war captives were a main source of slaves. The range of ethnicities among slaves to some extent reflected that of the armies Rome defeated in war, and the conquest of Greece brought a number of highly skilled and educated slaves. Slaves were also traded in markets and sometimes sold by pirates. Infant abandonment and self-enslavement among the poor were other sources.[141] Vernae, by contrast, were "homegrown" slaves born to female slaves within the household, estate or farm. Although they had no special legal status, an owner who mistreated or failed to care for his vernae faced social disapproval, as they were considered part of the family household and in some cases might actually be the children of free males in the family.[142]
Freedmen
Rome differed from
Census rank
The Latin word ordo (plural ordines) is translated variously and inexactly into English as "class, order, rank". One purpose of the
"Senator" was not itself an elected office in ancient Rome; an individual gained admission to the Senate after he had been elected to and served at least one term as an
In the time of Nero, senators were still primarily from
Senators were the traditional governing class who rose through the
The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the early Empire. Roman aristocracy was based on competition, and unlike later
In the later Empire, the dignitas ("worth, esteem") that attended on senatorial or equestrian rank was refined further with titles such as vir illustris ("illustrious man").[160] The appellation clarissimus (Greek lamprotatos) was used to designate the dignitas of certain senators and their immediate family, including women.[161] "Grades" of equestrian status proliferated.[162]
Unequal justice
As the republican principle of citizens' equality under the law faded, the symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honours (honestiores) and humbler folk (humiliores). In general, honestiores were the members of the three higher "orders", along with certain military officers.
Execution, which was an infrequent legal penalty for free men under the Republic,
Government and military
The three major elements of the Imperial state were the central government, the military, and the provincial government.[169] The military established control of a territory through war, but after a city or people was brought under treaty, the mission turned to policing: protecting Roman citizens, agricultural fields, and religious sites.[170] The Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to rule through force alone. Cooperation with local elites was necessary to maintain order, collect information, and extract revenue. The Romans often exploited internal political divisions.[171]
Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws, could collect their own taxes locally, and in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation. Legal privileges and relative independence incentivized compliance.[172] Roman government was thus limited, but efficient in its use of available resources.[173]
Central government
The
The emperor was the ultimate authority in policy- and decision-making, but in the early Principate, he was expected to be accessible and deal personally with official business and petitions. A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually.
Access to the emperor might be gained at the daily reception (salutatio), a development of the traditional homage a client paid to his patron; public banquets hosted at the palace; and religious ceremonies. The common people who lacked this access could manifest their approval or displeasure as a group at games.[183] By the 4th century, the Christian emperors became remote figureheads who issued general rulings, no longer responding to individual petitions.[184] Although the Senate could do little short of assassination and open rebellion to contravene the will of the emperor, it retained its symbolic political centrality.[185] The Senate legitimated the emperor's rule, and the emperor employed senators as legates (legati): generals, diplomats, and administrators.[186]
The practical source of an emperor's power and authority was the military. The legionaries were paid by the Imperial treasury, and swore an annual oath of loyalty to the emperor.[187] Most emperors chose a successor, usually a close family member or adopted heir. The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive without the allegiance of the Praetorian Guard and the legions. To secure their loyalty, several emperors paid the donativum, a monetary reward. In theory, the Senate was entitled to choose the new emperor, but did so mindful of acclamation by the army or Praetorians.[188]
Military
After the
The primary mission of the military of the early empire was to preserve the Pax Romana.[192] The three major divisions of the military were:
- the garrison at Rome, comprising the Praetorian Guard, the cohortes urbanae and the vigiles, who functioned as police and firefighters;
- the provincial army, comprising the Roman legions and the auxiliaries provided by the provinces (auxilia);
- the navy.
Through his military reforms, which included consolidating or disbanding units of questionable loyalty, Augustus regularized the legion. A legion was organized into ten cohorts, each of which comprised six centuries, with a century further made up of ten squads (contubernia); the exact size of the Imperial legion, which was likely determined by logistics, has been estimated to range from 4,800 to 5,280.[193] After Germanic tribes wiped out three legions in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, the number of legions was increased from 25 to around 30.[194] The army had about 300,000 soldiers in the 1st century, and under 400,000 in the 2nd, "significantly smaller" than the collective armed forces of the conquered territories. No more than 2% of adult males living in the Empire served in the Imperial army.[195] Augustus also created the Praetorian Guard: nine cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the public peace, which were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the Praetorians served only sixteen years.[196]
The auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort strength, they were paid less than the legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with Roman citizenship, also extended to their sons. According to Tacitus[197] there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries—thus, around 125,000 men, implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments.[198] The Roman cavalry of the earliest Empire were primarily from Celtic, Hispanic or Germanic areas. Several aspects of training and equipment derived from the Celts.[199]
The
Provincial government
An annexed territory became a
Other officials were appointed as supervisors of government finances.
Law
Roman courts held
In the West, law had been administered on a highly localized or tribal basis, and
The pervasiveness of Roman law throughout Western Europe enormously influenced the Western legal tradition, reflected by continued use of
Taxation
Taxation under the Empire amounted to about 5% of its
The primary source of direct tax revenue was individuals, who paid a
Low taxes helped the Roman aristocracy increase their wealth, which equalled or exceeded the revenues of the central government. An emperor sometimes replenished his treasury by confiscating the estates of the "super-rich", but in the later period, the resistance of the wealthy to paying taxes was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of the Empire.[53]
Economy
The Empire is best thought of as a network of regional economies, based on a form of "political capitalism" in which the state regulated commerce to assure its own revenues.
Economic dynamism resulted in social mobility. Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite society, wealth requirements for
Currency and banking
The early Empire was monetized to a near-universal extent, using money as a way to express prices and debts.[231] The sestertius (English "sesterces", symbolized as HS) was the basic unit of reckoning value into the 4th century,[232] though the silver denarius, worth four sesterces, was also used beginning in the Severan dynasty.[233] The smallest coin commonly circulated was the bronze as, one-tenth denarius.[234] Bullion and ingots seem not to have counted as pecunia ("money") and were used only on the frontiers. Romans in the first and second centuries counted coins, rather than weighing them—an indication that the coin was valued on its face. This tendency towards fiat money led to the debasement of Roman coinage in the later Empire.[235] The standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade and market integration.[231] The high amount of metal coinage in circulation increased the money supply for trading or saving.[236] Rome had no
Emperors of the
Mining and metallurgy
The main mining regions of the Empire were the Iberian Peninsula (gold, silver, copper, tin, lead); Gaul (gold, silver, iron); Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin), the
Transportation and communication
The Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they called "our sea" (Mare Nostrum).[248] Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as major rivers.[56] Transport by water was preferred where possible, as moving commodities by land was more difficult.[249] Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers.[250]
Land transport utilized the advanced system of
Trade and commodities
Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions as far away as
Labour and occupations
Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in Rome and 85 in Pompeii.[195] Professional associations or trade guilds (collegia) are attested for a wide range of occupations, some quite specialized.[163]
Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories: domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs;
Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments were traded and products were often named for peoples or towns, like a
Architecture and engineering
The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, vault and dome. Some Roman structures still stand today, due in part to sophisticated methods of making cements and concrete.[265] Roman temples developed Etruscan and Greek forms, with some distinctive elements. Roman roads are considered the most advanced built until the early 19th century. The system of roadways facilitated military policing, communications, and trade, and were resistant to floods and other environmental hazards. Some remained usable for over a thousand years.[citation needed]
The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts. De aquaeductu, a treatise by Frontinus, who served as water commissioner, reflects the administrative importance placed on the water supply. Masonry channels carried water along a precise gradient, using gravity alone. It was then collected in tanks and fed through pipes to public fountains, baths, toilets, or industrial sites.[268] The main aqueducts in Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia.[269] The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a route of more than 336 km.[270] Roman aqueducts were built to remarkably fine tolerance, and to a technological standard not equalled until modern times.[271] The Romans also used aqueducts in their extensive mining operations across the empire.[272]
Daily life
City and country
The city was viewed as fostering civilization by being "properly designed, ordered, and adorned".
City planning and urban lifestyles was influenced by the Greeks early on,
The network of cities (coloniae, municipia, civitates or in Greek terms poleis) was a primary cohesive force during the Pax Romana.[184] Romans of the 1st and 2nd centuries were encouraged to "inculcate the habits of peacetime".[281] As the classicist Clifford Ando noted:
Most of the cultural appurtenances popularly associated with imperial culture—public cult and its games and civic banquets, competitions for artists, speakers, and athletes, as well as the funding of the great majority of public buildings and public display of art—were financed by private individuals, whose expenditures in this regard helped to justify their economic power and legal and provincial privileges.[282]
In the city of Rome, most people lived in multistory apartment buildings (
The public baths served hygienic, social and cultural functions.[284] Bathing was the focus of daily socializing.[285] Roman baths were distinguished by a series of rooms that offered communal bathing in three temperatures, with amenities that might include an exercise room, sauna, exfoliation spa, ball court, or outdoor swimming pool. Baths had hypocaust heating: the floors were suspended over hot-air channels.[286] Public baths were part of urban culture throughout the provinces, but in the late 4th century, individual tubs began to replace communal bathing. Christians were advised to go to the baths only for hygiene.[287]
Rich families from Rome usually had two or more houses: a townhouse (
The villa by contrast was an escape from the city, and in literature represents a lifestyle that balances intellectual and artistic interests (otium) with an appreciation of nature and agriculture.[292] Ideally a villa commanded a view or vista, carefully framed by the architectural design.[293] It might be located on a working estate, or in a "resort town" on the seacoast.[citation needed]
Augustus' programme of urban renewal, and the growth of Rome's population to as many as one million, was accompanied by nostalgia for rural life. Poetry idealized the lives of farmers and shepherds. Interior decorating often featured painted gardens, fountains, landscapes, vegetative ornament,
Maintaining an affordable food supply to the city of Rome had become a major political issue in the late Republic, when the state began to provide a grain dole (
The public has long since cast off its cares: the people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things: bread and circuses.[301]
Health and disease
The importance of a good diet to health was recognized by medical writers such as
Food and dining
Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, though a charcoal
Most Romans consumed at least 70% of their daily
Roman literature focuses on the dining habits of the upper classes,
Refined cuisine could be moralized as a sign of either civilized progress or decadent decline.
Spectacles
When
Under Augustus, public entertainments were presented on 77 days of the year; by the reign of Marcus Aurelius, this had expanded to 135.
Circuses were the largest structure regularly built in the Roman world.
The chariot teams were known by the
The Romans thought gladiator contests had originated with
Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the "theatre of life and death"
Recreation
The singular ludus, "play, game, sport, training", had a wide range of meanings such as "word play", "theatrical performance", "board game", "primary school", and even "gladiator training school" (as in Ludus Magnus).[355] Activities for children and young people in the Empire included hoop rolling and knucklebones (astragali or "jacks"). Girls had dolls made of wood, terracotta, and especially bone and ivory.[356] Ball games include trigon and harpastum.[357] People of all ages played board games, including latrunculi ("Raiders") and XII scripta ("Twelve Marks").[358] A game referred to as alea (dice) or tabula (the board) may have been similar to backgammon.[359] Dicing as a form of gambling was disapproved of, but was a popular pastime during the festival of the Saturnalia.[citation needed]
After adolescence, most physical training for males was of a military nature. The Campus Martius originally was an exercise field where young men learned horsemanship and warfare. Hunting was also considered an appropriate pastime. According to Plutarch, conservative Romans disapproved of Greek-style athletics that promoted a fine body for its own sake, and condemned Nero's efforts to encourage Greek-style athletic games.[360] Some women trained as gymnasts and dancers, and a rare few as female gladiators. The "Bikini Girls" mosaic shows young women engaging in routines comparable to rhythmic gymnastics.[s][362] Women were encouraged to maintain health through activities such as playing ball, swimming, walking, or reading aloud (as a breathing exercise).[363]
Clothing
In a status-conscious society like that of the Romans, clothing and personal adornment indicated the etiquette of interacting with the wearer.[364] Wearing the correct clothing reflected a society in good order.[365] There is little direct evidence of how Romans dressed in daily life, since portraiture may show the subject in clothing with symbolic value, and surviving textiles are rare.[366][367]
The
Ordinary clothing was dark or colourful. The basic garment for all Romans, regardless of gender or wealth, was the simple sleeved tunic, with length differing by wearer.[371] The tunics of poor people and labouring slaves were made from coarse wool in natural, dull shades; finer tunics were made of lightweight wool or linen. A man of the senatorial or equestrian order wore a tunic with two purple stripes (clavi) woven vertically: the wider the stripe, the higher the wearer's status.[371] Other garments could be layered over the tunic. Common male attire also included cloaks and in some regions trousers.[372] In the 2nd century, emperors and elite men are often portrayed wearing the pallium, an originally Greek mantle; women are also portrayed in the pallium. Tertullian considered the pallium an appropriate garment both for Christians, in contrast to the toga, and for educated people.[365][366][373]
Roman clothing styles changed over time.[374] In the Dominate, clothing worn by both soldiers and bureaucrats became highly decorated with geometrical patterns, stylized plant motifs, and in more elaborate examples, human or animal figures.[375] Courtiers of the later Empire wore elaborate silk robes. The militarization of Roman society, and the waning of urban life, affected fashion: heavy military-style belts were worn by bureaucrats as well as soldiers, and the toga was abandoned,[376] replaced by the pallium as a garment embodying social unity.[377]
Arts
Portraiture
Portraiture, which survives mainly in sculpture, was the most copious form of imperial art. Portraits during the Augustan period utilize classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism.[383] Republican portraits were characterized by verism, but as early as the 2nd century BC, Greek heroic nudity was adopted for conquering generals.[384] Imperial portrait sculptures may model a mature head atop a youthful nude or semi-nude body with perfect musculature.[385] Clothed in the toga or military regalia, the body communicates rank or role, not individual characteristics.[386] Women of the emperor's family were often depicted as goddesses or divine personifications.[citation needed]
Portraiture in painting is represented primarily by the
Sculpture and sarcophagi
Examples of Roman sculpture survive abundantly, though often in damaged or fragmentary condition, including freestanding statuary in marble, bronze and terracotta, and reliefs from public buildings and monuments. Niches in amphitheatres were originally filled with statues,[388][389] as were formal gardens.[390] Temples housed cult images of deities, often by famed sculptors.[391]
Elaborately carved marble and limestone sarcophagi are characteristic of the 2nd to 4th centuries.[392] Sarcophagus relief has been called the "richest single source of Roman iconography",[393] depicting mythological scenes[394] or Jewish/Christian imagery[395] as well as the deceased's life.
Painting
Initial Roman painting drew from
Mosaic
Mosaics are among the most enduring of Roman decorative arts, and are found on floors and other architectural features. The most common is the tessellated mosaic, formed from uniform pieces (tesserae) of materials such as stone and glass.[397] Opus sectile is a related technique in which flat stone, usually coloured marble, is cut precisely into shapes from which geometric or figurative patterns are formed. This more difficult technique became especially popular for luxury surfaces in the 4th century (e.g. the Basilica of Junius Bassus).[398]
Figurative mosaics share many themes with painting, and in some cases use almost identical compositions. Geometric patterns and mythological scenes occur throughout the Empire. In North Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, homeowners often chose scenes of life on their estates, hunting, agriculture, and local wildlife.[396] Plentiful and major examples of Roman mosaics come also from present-day Turkey (particularly the (Antioch mosaics[399]), Italy, southern France, Spain, and Portugal.
Decorative arts
Decorative arts for luxury consumers included fine pottery, silver and bronze vessels and implements, and glassware. Pottery manufacturing was economically important, as were the glass and metalworking industries. Imports stimulated new regional centres of production. Southern Gaul became a leading producer of the finer red-gloss pottery (terra sigillata) that was a major trade good in 1st-century Europe.[400] Glassblowing was regarded by the Romans as originating in Syria in the 1st century BC, and by the 3rd century, Egypt and the Rhineland had become noted for fine glass.[401]
-
Silver cup, from the Boscoreale Treasure (early 1st century AD)
-
Finely decorated Gallo-Roman terra sigillata bowl
-
Gold earrings with gemstones, 3rd century
-
Glass cage cup from the Rhineland, 4th century
Performing arts
In Roman tradition, borrowed from the Greeks, literary theatre was performed by all-male troupes that used face masks with exaggerated facial expressions to portray emotion. Female roles were played by men in
More popular than literary theatre was the genre-defying mimus theatre, which featured scripted scenarios with free improvisation, risqué language and sex scenes, action sequences, and political satire, along with dance, juggling, acrobatics, tightrope walking, striptease, and
Although sometimes regarded as foreign,
Like
Literacy, books, and education
Estimates of the average
Numeracy was necessary for commerce.[419][424] Slaves were numerate and literate in significant numbers; some were highly educated.[425] Graffiti and low-quality inscriptions with misspellings and solecisms indicate casual literacy among non-elites.[426][u][84]
The Romans had an extensive priestly archive, and inscriptions appear throughout the Empire in connection with votives dedicated by ordinary people, as well as "magic spells" (e.g. the Greek Magical Papyri).[427]
Books were expensive, since each copy had to be written out on a papyrus roll (volumen) by scribes.
Collectors amassed personal libraries,
Literary texts were often shared aloud at meals or with reading groups.[441] Public readings (recitationes) expanded from the 1st through the 3rd century, giving rise to "consumer literature" for entertainment.[442] Illustrated books, including erotica, were popular, but are poorly represented by extant fragments.[443]
Literacy began to decline during the Crisis of the Third Century.[444] The emperor Julian banned Christians from teaching the classical curriculum,[445] but the Church Fathers and other Christians adopted Latin and Greek literature, philosophy and science in biblical interpretation.[446] As the Western Roman Empire declined, reading became rarer even for those within the Church hierarchy,[447] although it continued in the Byzantine Empire.[448]
Education
Traditional Roman education was moral and practical. Stories were meant to instil Roman values (mores maiorum). Parents were expected to act as role models, and working parents passed their skills to their children, who might also enter apprenticeships.[450] Young children were attended by a pedagogue, usually a Greek slave or former slave,[451] who kept the child safe, taught self-discipline and public behaviour, attended class and helped with tutoring.[452]
Formal education was available only to families who could pay for it; lack of state support contributed to low literacy.[453] Primary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic might take place at home if parents hired or bought a teacher.[454] Other children attended "public" schools organized by a schoolmaster (ludimagister) paid by parents.[455] Vernae (homeborn slave children) might share in-home or public schooling.[456] Boys and girls received primary education generally from ages 7 to 12, but classes were not segregated by grade or age.[457] Most schools employed corporal punishment.[458] For the socially ambitious, education in Greek as well as Latin was necessary.[459] Schools became more numerous during the Empire, increasing educational opportunities.[459]
At the age of 14, upperclass males made their
In Latin, illiteratus could mean both "unable to read and write" and "lacking in cultural awareness or sophistication".
Literate women ranged from cultured aristocrats to girls trained to be
Literature
The mid-1st through mid-2nd century has conventionally been called the "Silver Age" of Latin literature. The three leading writers—Seneca, Lucan, and Petronius—committed suicide after incurring Nero's displeasure. Epigrammatist and social observer Martial and the epic poet Statius, whose poetry collection Silvae influenced Renaissance literature,[482] wrote during the reign of Domitian. Other authors of the Silver Age included Pliny the Elder, author of the encyclopedic Natural History; his nephew, Pliny the Younger; and the historian Tacitus.
The principal Latin prose author of the Augustan age is the historian Livy, whose account of Rome's founding became the most familiar version in modern-era literature. The Twelve Caesars by Suetonius is a primary source for imperial biography. Among Imperial historians who wrote in Greek are Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Josephus, and Cassius Dio. Other major Greek authors of the Empire include the biographer Plutarch, the geographer Strabo, and the rhetorician and satirist Lucian.[citation needed]
From the 2nd to the 4th centuries, Christian authors were in active dialogue with the
In contrast to the unity of Classical Latin, the literary esthetic of late antiquity has a tessellated quality.[484] A continuing interest in the religious traditions of Rome prior to Christian dominion is found into the 5th century, with the Saturnalia of Macrobius and The Marriage of Philology and Mercury of Martianus Capella. Prominent Latin poets of late antiquity include Ausonius, Prudentius, Claudian, and Sidonius Apollinaris.[citation needed]
Religion
The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success to their collective piety (
Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of
In the wake of the
The Romans are known for the
Christianity emerged in
From the 2nd century onward, the
Christians of the 4th century believed the conversion of Constantine showed that Christianity had triumphed over paganism (in Heaven) and little further action besides such rhetoric was necessary.[503] Thus, their focus was heresy.[504][505] According to Peter Brown, "In most areas, polytheists were not molested, and apart from a few ugly incidents of local violence, Jewish communities also enjoyed a century of stable, even privileged, existence".[505]: 641–643 [506] There were anti-pagan laws, but they were not generally enforced; through the 6th century, centers of paganism existed in Athens, Gaza, Alexandria, and elsewhere.[507]
According to recent Jewish scholarship, toleration of the Jews was maintained under Christian emperors.
Legacy
Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire's successor. The
The Roman Empire's control of the Italian peninsula influenced
In the United States, the
See also
- Outline of ancient Rome
- List of political systems in France
- List of Roman dynasties
- Daqin ("Great Qin"), the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire; see also Sino-Roman relations
- Imperial Italy
- Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty
Notes
- ^ Eastern Roman Empire[18]
- ^ Fig. 1. Regions east of the Euphrates river were held only in the years 116–117.
- East and West–an arrangement that periodically returned until the two halves were permanently divided in 395.[3] Although the halves were independent in practice, the Romans continued to consider the Roman Empire to be a single undivided state with two co-equal emperors until the fall of the western half in 476/480.[3] Although emperors at times governed from other cities (notably Mediolanum and Ravenna in the West and Nicomedia in the East), Rome remained the de jure capital of the entire Roman Empire. In 330, Emperor Constantine I made Constantinople a second and new capital of the empire ("Second Rome" or "New Rome").[4][5][6][7][8][9] For a time, mostly over the course of the later decades of the fourth century, Rome continued to hold greater symbolic status on account of its greater antiquity as imperial capital.[10] From at least 361 onwards, senators belonging to the new senate in Constantinople enjoyed the same status and privileges as senators of the Roman Senate, to which the new senate was largely identical.[11] By 450, Constantinople was much grander in size and adornment than Rome and unquestionably senior in status.[12]
- ^ In 1204, the crusaders of the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople and established the Latin Empire. The city remained under foreign rule until 1261, when it was captured by the Empire of Nicaea (a Byzantine/Roman successor state). Nicaea is usually considered the "legitimate" continuation of the Roman Empire during the "interregnum" 1204–1261 (over its rivals in Trebizond and Thessalonica) since it managed to retake Constantinople.[13] Whether there was an interregnum at all is debatable given that the crusaders envisioned the Latin Empire to be the same empire as its predecessor (and not a new state).[14]
- ^ Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces.
- The City of God. See also Fears, J. Rufus (1981), "The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, vol. II, p. 136, on how Classical Roman ideology influenced Christian Imperial doctrine, Bang, Peter Fibiger (2011), "The King of Kings: Universal Hegemony, Imperial Power, and a New Comparative History of Rome", The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, John Wiley & Sons and the Greek concept of globalism (oikouménē).
- ^ Its been called a state of bilingualism but that's only true of the educated and so Bruno Rochette suggests it's more appropriate as a diglossia but concedes this still does not adequately explain it, as Greek was "high" against Latins "Super-high".[58] Latin experienced a period of spreading from the second century BCE, and especially in the western provinces, but not as much in the eastern provinces.[59] In the east, Greek was always the dominant language, a left over influence from the Hellenistic period that predates the Empire.[60][61]
- ^ The civis ("citizen") stands in explicit contrast to a peregrina, a foreign or non-Roman woman[108] In the form of legal marriage called conubium, the father's legal status determined the child's, but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens. A soldier, for instance, was banned from marrying while in service, but if he formed a long-term union with a local woman while stationed in the provinces, he could marry her legally after he was discharged, and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens—in effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship. The ban was in place from the time of Augustus until it was rescinded by Septimius Severus in 197 AD.[109]
- ^ The others are ancient Athens, and in the modern era Brazil, the Caribbean, and the United States
- ^ That senator was Tiberius Claudius Gordianus[150]
- ^ The relation of the equestrian order to the "public horse" and Roman cavalry parades and demonstrations (such as the Lusus Troiae) is complex, but those who participated in the latter seem, for instance, to have been the equites who were accorded the high-status (and quite limited) seating at the theatre by the Lex Roscia theatralis. Senators could not possess the "public horse".[152]
- ^ Ancient Gades, in Roman Spain (now Cádiz), and Patavium, in the Celtic north of Italy (now Padua), were atypically wealthy cities, and having 500 equestrians in one city was unusual.[154]
- Contrebian water rights heard by G. Valerius Flaccus as governor of Hispaniain the 90s–80s BC.
- ^ This was the vicesima libertatis, "the twentieth for freedom"[211]
- ^ The college of centonarii is an elusive topic in scholarship, since they are also widely attested as urban firefighters.[263][264] Historian Jinyu Liu sees them as "primarily tradesmen and/or manufacturers engaged in the production and distribution of low- or medium-quality woolen textiles and clothing, including felt and its products".[264]
- ^ Julius Caesar first applied the Latin word oppidum to this type of settlement, and even called Avaricum (Bourges, France), a center of the Bituriges, an urbs, "city". Archaeology indicates that oppida were centers of religion, trade (including import/export), and industrial production, walled for the purposes of defence, but they may not have been inhabited by concentrated populations year-round.[280]
- ^ Such as the Consualia and the October Horse sacrifice.[325]
- ^ Scholars are divided in their relative emphasis on the athletic and dance elements of these exercises: Lee, H. (1984). "Athletics and the Bikini Girls from Piazza Armerina". Stadion. 10: 45–75. sees them as gymnasts, while Torelli thinks they are dancers at the games.[361]
- ^ Clifford Ando posed the question as "what good would 'posted edicts' do in a world of low literacy?'.[420]
- sling bulletswith aggressive messages: Phang, "Military Documents, Languages, and Literacy," p. 300.
- caesareum at Najaran was possibly known later as the "Kaaba of Najran"[488]
- ^ "This mentality," notes John T. Koch, "lay at the core of the genius of cultural assimilation which made the Roman Empire possible"; entry on "Interpretatio romana," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 974.
References
Citations
- ISBN 978-1-101-50200-6.
- ^ Bennett (1997).
- ^ ISBN 978-0-241-63575-9. Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
- ISBN 978-3-11-021558-8. Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
Constantine the Great transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the newly-founded city of Constantinople
- ISBN 978-1-009-25622-3. Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
the capital of the Empire was transferred from Rome to Constantinople in the fourth century
- ISBN 978-0-521-89629-0.
Constantine sounded the death knell for Rome as a vital political centre with the dedication of his new imperial capital at Constantinople
- ISBN 978-1-107-02840-1. Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
As a new capital, Constantinople provided a stage for imperial prestige that did not depend on association with the traditions of the senatorial establishment at Rome
- ISBN 978-0-313-07270-3. Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
It became Constantinople, capital of the entire Roman Empire
- ISBN 978-1-351-95584-3. Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
Constantine the Great, the emperor who moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople
- ISBN 978-0-19-992118-8. Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
- ISBN 978-94-010-2400-6. Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-8264-3086-1. Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
- ^ Treadgold (1997), p. 734.
- ISBN 978-9004203235. Archivedfrom the original on 6 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
- ^ JSTOR 1170959.
- ^ a b Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
- from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 30 October 2018.
- S2CID 162802725.
- ISBN 978-1-78093-800-4.
After the capture of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Osmanli Turks called their empire the Empire of Rum (Rome).
- ^ Kelly (2007), pp. 4ff; Nicolet (1991), pp. 1, 15; Brennan, T. Corey (2000). The Praetorship in the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 605. Peachin (2011), pp. 39–40
- ^ a b c Potter (2009), p. 179.
- ^ Nicolet (1991), pp. 1, 15.
- ^ a b Hekster, Olivier; Kaizer, Ted (16–19 April 2009). "Preface". Frontiers in the Roman World: Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire. Brill: viii.
- ISBN 0-520-08447-0.
- ^ Richardson, John (2011). "Fines provincial". Frontiers in the Roman World. Brill. p. 10.
- ^ Richardson (2011), pp. 1–2.
- ^ Syme, Ronald (1939). The Roman Revolution. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–4.
- ^ Boatwright, Mary T. (2000). Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 4.
- Dio Cassius, Roman History, translated by Cary, E. (Loeb Classical Library edition, 1927 ed.), p. 72.36.4
- ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776), "The Decline And Fall in the West – Chapter 4", The History of the Decline And Fall of the Roman Empire, archived from the original on 24 August 2017, retrieved 27 June 2017
- ^ Goldsworthy (2009), p. 50.
- ISBN 978-0-151-98885-3.
- ^ Goldsworthy (2009), pp. 405–415.
- ISBN 978-0-415-10057-1.
- ISBN 978-0-195-01814-1.
- ^ Bury, John Bagnall (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire. Dover Books. pp. 295–297. Archived from the original on 13 July 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2021.
- ^ Bury (1923), pp. 312–313.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-653-05232-9.
Odoacer, who dethroned the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, neither used the imperial insignia nor the colour purple, which was used by the emperor in Byzantium only.
- ^ a b Peter, Heather. "The Fall of Rome". BBC. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Gothic Kingdom of Italy. – Part II." (ebook). In Widger, David (ed.). History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire. Harper & Brothers. Archived from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2020 – via Project Gutenberg.
The patrician Orestes had married the daughter of Count Romulus, of Petovio in Noricum: the name of Augustus, notwithstanding the jealousy of power, was known at Aquileia as a familiar surname; and the appellations of the two great founders, of the city and of the monarchy, were thus strangely united in the last of their successors", "The life of this inoffensive youth was spared by the generous clemency of Odoacer; who dismissed him, with his whole family, from the Imperial palace.
- ^ Gibbon, Edward (1776). "Gothic Kingdom of Italy. – Part II.". The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Archived from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2020 – via Project Gutenberg.
The republic (they repeat that name without a blush) might safely confide in the civil and military virtues of Odoacer; and they humbly request, that the emperor would invest him with the title of Patrician, and the administration of the diocese of Italy. ...His vanity was gratified by the title of sole emperor, and by the statues erected to his honor in the several quarters of Rome; ...He entertained a friendly, though ambiguous, correspondence with the patrician Odoacer; and he gratefully accepted the Imperial ensigns.
- ^ Ozgen, Korkut. "Mehmet II". TheOttomans.org. Archived from the original on 30 April 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2007.; Cartwright, Mark (23 January 2018). "1453: The Fall of Constantinople". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 12 April 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ Kelly (2007), p. 3.
- ^ Nicolet (1991), p. 29.
- ISBN 978-0-415-23943-1.
- ^ Mastrangelo, Marc (2008). The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 73, 203.
- ^ Mosley, Stephen (2010). The Environment in World History. Routledge. p. 35.
- ^ Nicolet (1991), pp. 7, 8.
- ^ Nicolet (1991), pp. 9, 16.
- ^ Nicolet (1991), pp. 10, 11.
- ^ a b Southern (2001), pp. 14–16.
- ^ a b Kelly (2007), p. 1.
- ^ a b Morris & Scheidel (2009), p. 184.
- .
- S2CID 165770409.
- ^ a b Boardman (2000), p. 721.
- ^ Woolf, Greg, ed. (2003). Cambridge Illustrated History of the Roman World. Ivy Press. p. 340.; Opper, Thorsten (2008). Hadrian: Empire and Conflict. Harvard University Press. p. 64.; Fields, Nic (2003). Hadrian's Wall AD 122–410, which was, of course, at the bottom of Hadrian's garden. Osprey Publishing. p. 35.
- ^ Rochette (2018), p. 123.
- ^ Rochette (2012), pp. 562–563
- ^ Rochette (2018), p. 108.
- ISBN 0-520-94141-1.; Treadgold (1997), pp. 5–7
- ^ Rochette (2018), p. 117.
- ISBN 978-0-521-72160-8.
- from the original on 9 February 2024. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
- ^ Rochette (2012), p. 556; Adams (2003), p. 200
- ISBN 978-0-674-49604-0. Archivedfrom the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
- ISBN 978-1-108-89734-1. Archivedfrom the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-0217-9. Archivedfrom the original on 18 July 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
- ^ Freeman (2000), p. 438.
- recto" (Rylands Papyried.). p. 2.15.
- ^ Adams 2003, pp. 188, 197; Freeman 2000, p. 394; Rochette 2012, p. 549
- ISBN 978-0-8122-3390-2. Archivedfrom the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
- ^ Rochette (2018), p. 122.
- ISBN 978-1-107-06858-2.
- ^ Adams (2003), p. 205.
- ^ Rochette 2023, p. 263, 268; Rochette 2018, pp. 114–115, 118.
- ^ Rochette (2018).
- ^ Adams (2003), pp. 185–186, 205.
- ^ a b Treadgold (1997), pp. 5–7.
- ^ Rochette (2018), pp. 108–109.
- ISBN 9783111636221. Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2024. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
"page 37. According to Pei & Gaeng (1976: 76–81), the decisive moment came with the Islamic conquest of North Africa and Iberia, which was followed by numerous raids on land and by sea. All this had the effect of disrupting connections between the western Romance-speaking regions.
- ^ ISBN 0-415-21285-5.
- ^ Rochette (2012), p. 550; Zimmer, Stefan (2006). "Indo-European". Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-Clio. p. 961.
- ^ JSTOR 295333.
- ^ Rochette (2012), pp. 558–559.
- ^ Adams (2003), p. 199.
- ^ Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galatæ vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit. And coming to Clermont [to the Arverni] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatæ in the Gallic tongue,
- ISBN 978-2-7298-6470-5.
Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.
- ISBN 978-0-511-48297-7.
- OCLC 34514667.
- ISBN 978-0-470-67336-2.
- ^ Peachin (2011), p. 12.
- ^ Peachin (2011), p. 16.
- ^ Peachin (2011), p. 9.
- ^ a b c d e f g Garnsey, Peter; Saller, Richard. The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture. University of California Press. pp. 107–111.
- ^ Noreña, Carlos F. (2011). Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power. Cambridge University Press. p. 7.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 4–5.
- ^ Winterling (2009), pp. 11, 21.
- ^ Saller, Richard P. (2002) [1982]. Personal Patronage under the Early Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123, 176, 183.; Duncan, Anne (2006). Performance and Identity in the Classical World. Cambridge University Press. p. 164.
- ^ Reinhold, Meyer (2002). Studies in Classical History and Society. Oxford University Press. pp. 25ff, 42.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 18.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 17, 20.
- ^ Millar (2012), pp. 81–82.
- ^ Carroll, Maureen (2006). Spirits of the Dead: Roman Funerary Commemoration in Western Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 45–46.
- Institutiones1.9 Digest 1.5.3.
- ^ Frier & McGinn (2004), pp. 31–32.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 177.
- ^ Sherwin-White, A.N. (1979), Roman Citizenship, Oxford University Press, pp. 211, 268; Frier & McGinn (2004), pp. 31–32, 457
- ^ Phang, Sara Elise (2001). The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army. Brill. p. 2.; Southern, Pat (2006). The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History. Oxford University Press. p. 144.
- ^ Rawson (1987), p. 18.
- ^ Frier & McGinn (2004), p. 461; Boardman (2000), p. 733
- ^ Woodhull, Margaret L. (2004). "Matronly Patrons in the Early Roman Empire: The Case of Salvia Postuma". Women's Influence on Classical Civilization. Routledge. p. 77.
- ^ Frier & McGinn (2004), pp. 19–20.
- S2CID 163347317.
- ^ Rawson (1987), p. 15.
- ^ Frier & McGinn (2004), pp. 19–20, 22.
- ISBN 0-19-814939-5.
- ^ Johnston, David (1999). "3.3". Roman Law in Context. Cambridge University Press.; Frier & McGinn (2004), Ch. IV; Thomas, Yan (1991). "The Division of the Sexes in Roman Law". A History of Women from Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints. Harvard University Press. p. 134.
- ISBN 1-134-39183-8.
- ^ Severy (2002), p. 4.
- Modestinus, Liber Regularum I. Cantarella, Eva (2002) [1988 (Italian), 1992]. Bisexuality in the Ancient World. Yale University Press. p. 104.; Edwards (2007), pp. 34–35
- ^ Grace, Angela (28 August 2015). "Fecunditas, Sterilitas, and the Politics of Reproduction at Rome". York Space.
- ^ a b Bradley (1994), p. 12.
- ^ Bradley (1994), p. 15.
- S2CID 162250553.
- ^ Harper, Kyle (2011). Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275–425. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–16.
- ^ Frier & McGinn (2004), p. 7.
- ISBN 0-19-516132-7.; Gardner, Jane F. (1991). Women in Roman Law and Society. Indiana University Press. p. 119.
- ^ Frier & McGinn (2004), pp. 31–33.
- ^ Frier & McGinn (2004), p. 21.
- S2CID 145609520.
- ^ Bradley (1994), pp. 2–3.
- ^ Bradley (1994), p. 10.
- ISBN 978-0-19-973784-0.
- ^ McGinn (1998), pp. 288ff.
- ^ Abusch, Ra'anan (2003). "Circumcision and Castration under Roman Law in the Early Empire". The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite. Brandeis University Press. pp. 77–78.; Schäfer, Peter (2003) [1983]. The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. p. 150.
- ISBN 978-0739117262.
Roman slavery was a nonracist and fluid system
- ISBN 0-8133-3523-X.
- ISBN 978-0-715-62952-9.
- JSTOR 293259.
- ^ Harris (1999).
- ^ Rawson (1987), pp. 186–188, 190; Bradley (1994), pp. 34, 48–50
- ISBN 0-472-08878-5.
- ^ Mouritsen, Henrik (2011). The Freedman in the Roman World. Cambridge University Press. p. 36.
- ^ a b Berger, Adolf (1991) [1953]. "libertus". Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law. American Philological Society. p. 564.
- ISBN 0-85989-632-3.
- ^ Boardman (2000), pp. 215, 221–222; Millar (2012), p. 88, The standard complement of 600 was flexible; twenty quaestors, for instance, held office each year and were thus admitted to the Senate regardless of whether there were "open" seats
- ^ a b Millar (2012), p. 88.
- ^ Boardman (2000), pp. 218–219.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 219.
- JSTOR 292973.
- ^ Wiseman (1970), pp. 78–79.
- ^ Wiseman (1970), pp. 71–72, 76.
- ^ Strabo 3.169, 5.213
- ^ Wiseman (1970), pp. 75–76, 78.
- ISBN 978-0-521-78274-6.; Bennett (1997), p. 5
- ^ Morris & Scheidel (2009), p. 188; Millar (2012), pp. 87–88
- ^ Millar (2012), p. 96.
- ^ Liebeschuetz, Wolfgang (2001). "The End of the Ancient City". The City in Late Antiquity. Taylor & Francis. pp. 26–27.
- ^ Millar (2012), p. 90, calls them "status-appellations".
- ^ Millar (2012), p. 91.
- ^ Millar (2012), p. 90.
- ^ hdl:1854/LU-395187. Archived from the original on 3 November 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2017.; Peachin (2011), pp. 153–154
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 153–154; Perkins, Judith (2009). Early Christian and Judicial Bodies. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 245–246.; Peachin (2011), p. 475
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 153–154.
- ISBN 0-521-84860-1.
- ^ S2CID 163071557.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 153–154; Robinson, O.F. (2007). Penal Practice and Penal Policy in Ancient Rome. Routledge. p. 108.
- ^ Bohec (2000), p. 8.
- ^ Bohec (2000), pp. 14–15.
- ISBN 0-8018-2158-4.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 184.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 181.
- ^ Smith, William (1875). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. John Murray. pp. 105–106. Archived from the original on 13 July 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ Abbott (1901), p. 354.
- ^ Abbott (1901), p. 345.
- ^ Abbott (1901), p. 341.
- ISBN 0-8078-5520-0.
- ^ Boardman (2000), pp. 195ff.
- ^ Boardman (2000), pp. 205–209.
- ^ Boardman (2000), pp. 202–203, 205, 210.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 211.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 212.
- ^ a b Millar (2012), p. 76.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 215.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 721; Winterling (2009), p. 16
- ^ Goldsworthy (2003), p. 80.
- ^ Winterling (2009), p. 16.
- ISBN 978-0-393-93492-2.
- ^ Edmondson (1996), pp. 111–112.
- ^ Bohec (2000), p. 9.
- ^ Hekster, Olivier J. (2007). "Fighting for Rome: The Emperor as a Military Leader". Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC–AD 476). Brill. p. 96.
- ^ Roth, J. (1994). "The Size and Organization of the Roman Imperial Legion". Historia. 43 (3): 346–362.
- ^ Goldsworthy (2003), p. 183.
- ^ a b Morris & Scheidel (2009), p. 196.
- ISBN 978-1-841-76932-5.
Section 3: Early Empire 27 BC–AD 235
- ^ Tacitus Annales IV.5
- ^ Goldsworthy (2003), p. 51.
- S2CID 161535316.
- ^ Goldsworthy (2003), p. 114.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 183.
- ^ Potter (2009), pp. 177–179, Most government records that are preserved come from Roman Egypt, where the climate preserved the papyri..
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 179, The exclusion of Egypt from the senatorial provinces dates to the rise of Octavian before he became Augustus: Egypt had been the stronghold of his last opposition, Mark Antony and his ally Cleopatra..
- ^ a b c Potter (2009), p. 180.
- ^ Potter (2009), pp. 179, 187.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 180; Fuhrmann (2012), pp. 197, 214, 224
- ^ a b Potter (2009), pp. 184–185.
- ^ Bozeman, Adda B. (2010). Politics and Culture in International History from the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age (2nd ed.). Transaction Publishers. pp. 208–220.
- Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma(2000). The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome. Cornell University Press. p. 53.
- ^ Morris & Scheidel (2009), p. 183.
- ^ a b c d e Potter (2009), p. 187.
- ^ Potter (2009), pp. 185–187.
- ^ Morris & Scheidel (2009), p. 184; Potter (2009), p. 185
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 185.
- ^ a b Potter (2009), p. 188.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 186.
- ^ Cassius Dio 55.31.4.
- ^ Tacitus, Annales 13.31.2.
- ^ Potter (2009), pp. 286, 295.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 286.
- ^ a b c Potter (2009), p. 285.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 292.
- ^ Potter (2009), pp. 285–286, 296ff.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 296.
- ISBN 978-0-521-78053-7.
- ^ Lo Cascio, Elio; Malanima, Paolo (2009). "GDP in Pre-Modern Agrarian Economies (1–1820 AD). A Revision of the Estimates". Rivista di Storia Economica. 25 (3): 391–420 (391–401). Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-19-922721-1.
- ISBN 0-8018-4175-5. quoting Packer, J.E. Middle and Lower Class Housing in Pompeii and Herculaneum: A Preliminary Survey," In Neue Forschung in Pompeji. pp. 133–142.
- (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2018. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
- ^ Fears, J. Rufus (1981). "The Theology of Victory at Rome: Approaches and Problem". Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. II.17.2. pp. 752, 824., Fears, J. Rufus (1981). "The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology". Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt. Vol. II.17.2. p. 908.
- ^ a b Kessler, David; Temin, Peter (2010). "Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire". The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans. Oxford University Press.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8018-5291-6.
- ^ Bowman, Garnsey & Cameron (2005), p. 333.
- ^ Wells, Colin (1984). The Roman Empire. Harvard University Press. p. 8.
- ^ a b c d e f Harris (2010).
- ISBN 978-0-19-533690-0.
- ^ Harris (2010); Andreau, Jean (1999). Banking and Business in the Roman World. Cambridge University Press. p. 2.
- ^ Tacitus, Annales 6.17.3.
- ^ Duncan-Jones (1994), pp. 3–4.
- S2CID 154629776.
- ISBN 0-500-40035-0. Assumes a productive capacity of c. 1.5 kg per capita.
- S2CID 176767223.
- (PDF) from the original on 29 April 2019. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
- ^ S2CID 232346123.
- PMID 6986654.
- .
- ^ Morris & Scheidel (2009), p. 197.
- ISBN 978-0-520-07401-9.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 714.
- ISBN 978-0300103410.
- ^ Van Tilburg, Cornelis (2007). Traffic and Congestion in the Roman Empire. Routledge. p. 33.
- ^ a b c Stambaugh (1988), p. 253.
- ^ Ray Laurence, "Land Transport in Roman Italy: Costs, Practice and the Economy", in Trade, Traders and the Ancient City (Routledge, 1998), p. 129.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 713.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 710.
- ^ Boardman (2000), pp. 717–729.
- ^ Bowman, Garnsey & Cameron (2005), p. 404; Boardman (2000), p. 719
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 323.
- S2CID 33380115.
- ^ Jones (1960), pp. 184–185.
- ^ a b Jones (1960), p. 192.
- ^ Jones (1960), pp. 190–191.
- ^ Vout (2009), p. 212.
- ^ a b Liu, Jinyu (2009). Collegia Centonariorum: The Guilds of Textile Dealers in the Roman West. Brill.
- ^ MacDonald, William L. (1982). The Architecture of the Roman Empire. Yale University Press. fig. 131B.; Lechtman, H. N.; Hobbs, L. W. (1987). "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution". Ceramics and Civilization. 3: 81–128.
- ISBN 978-1-4020-9484-2.
- ISBN 978-0-432-15090-0.; Schnitter, Niklaus (1978). "Römische Talsperren". Antike Welt. 8 (2): 25–32 (28).
- ^ Chandler, Fiona (2001). The Usborne Internet Linked Encyclopedia of the Roman World. Usborne Publishing. p. 80.
- ^ Forman, Joan (1975). The Romans. Macdonald Educational. p. 34.
- ^ Crow, J. (2007). "Earth, walls and water in Late Antique Constantinople". In Lavan, L.; Zanini, E.; Sarantis, A. (eds.). Technology in Transition AD 300–650. Brill.
- ISBN 978-0-520-07401-9.
- ^ Jones & Bird (2012), pp. 59–74.
- S2CID 161937987.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 192.
- ^ a b c Rehak, Paul (2006). Imperium and Cosmos: Augustus and the Northern Campus Martius. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 4–8.
- ^ Stambaugh (1988), pp. 23ff, 244.
- ^ Raja, Rubina (2012). Urban Development and Regional Identity in the Eastern Roman Provinces 50 BC–AD 250. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 215–218.; Sperber, Daniel (1998). The City in Roman Palestine. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Stambaugh (1988), pp. 252, 253.
- ^ ISBN 978-0521194938.
- ISBN 978-1134264643.; Collis, John (2000). "'Celtic' Oppida". A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 229–238.; Celtic Chiefdom, Celtic State: The Evolution of Complex Social Systems. Cambridge University Press. 1999 [1995]. p. 61.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 192; Virgil, p. 6.852
- ^ Potter (2009), pp. 185–186.
- ^ Jones (2003).
- ^ Evans, Harry B. (1994). Water Distribution in Ancient Rome. University of Michigan Press. pp. 9–10.
- ^ Peachin (2011), p. 366.
- ^ S2CID 31943417. Archived from the original(PDF) on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
- S2CID 161983440.
- ^ Clarke (1991), pp. 1–2.
- ^ Clarke (1991), pp. 11–12.
- ^ Clarke (1991), p. 2.
- ^ Stambaugh (1988), pp. 144, 147; Clarke (1991), pp. 12, 17, 22ff
- ISBN 047210196X.
- ^ a b Clarke (1991), p. 19.
- ISBN 978-0-521-80054-9.
- ^ a b c d e f Morris & Scheidel (2009), p. 191.
- ^ Boardman (2000), p. 679.
- ^ Morris & Scheidel (2009), pp. 195–196.
- ^ Morris & Scheidel (2009), p. 191, reckoning that the surplus of wheat from the province of Egypt alone could meet and exceed the needs of the city of Rome and the provincial armies.
- S2CID 163672978.
- ^ Keane, Catherine (2006). Figuring Genre in Roman Satire. Oxford University Press. p. 36.; Köhne, Eckhart (2000). "Bread and Circuses: The Politics of Entertainment". Gladiators and Caesars: The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome. University of California Press. p. 8.
- ^ Juvenal. Satire. pp. 10.77–81.
- ISBN 978-0-691-16683-4.
- ^ Grant, Mark (2000). Galen on Food and Diet. Routledge. pp. 7, 11.
- hdl:10419/47594.
- ^ Stambaugh (1988), pp. 144, 178; Hinds, Kathryn (2010). Everyday Life in the Roman Empire. Marshall Cavendish. p. 90.
- ^ Holleran (2012), p. 136ff.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 299.
- ^ Faas, Patrick (2005) [1994]. Around the Roman Table: Food and Feasting in Ancient Rome. University of Chicago Press. p. 29.
- ^ a b Boardman (2000), p. 681.
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, p. 19.83–84; Gowers, Emily (2003) [1993]. The Loaded Table: Representation of Food in Roman Literature. Oxford University Press. p. 17.; Gagarin (2010), p. 198
- ^ Stambaugh (1988), p. 144.
- ^ Morris & Scheidel (2009), p. 191; Stambaugh (1988), p. 146; Holleran (2012), p. 134
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 354.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 356.
- ^ Roller, Matthew B. (2006). Dining Posture in Ancient Rome. Princeton University Press. pp. 96ff.
- ^ Alcock, Joan P. (2006). Food in the Ancient World. Greenwood Press. p. 184.
- ^ Suetonius. Life of Vitellius. p. 13.2.; Gowers (2003), p. 20
- ^ Kaufman, Cathy K. "Remembrance of Meals Past: Cooking by Apicius' Book". Food and the Memory: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cooker. pp. 125ff.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 201.
- ISBN 978-0-231-11154-6.
- ^ Potter (2009), pp. 365–366.
- ^ a b Flandrin & Montanari (1999), pp. 165–167.
- ^ Bowersock, Brown & Grabar (1999), p. 455.
- ^ Beard, Mary; North, J.A.; Price, S.R.F. (1998). Religions of Rome: A History. Cambridge University Press. p. 66.
- ^ Humphrey (1986), pp. 544, 558; Bouché-Leclercq, Auguste (1886). Manuel des Institutions Romaines. Hachette. p. 549.; "Purificazione". Thesaurus Cultus et Rituum Antiquorum. LIMC. 2004. p. 83.
- ^ Dyson (2010), p. 240.
- ^ Versnel, H.S. (1971). Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph. Brill. pp. 96–97.
- ^ Potter & Mattingly (1999), p. 242.
- ^ Potter & Mattingly (1999), pp. 235–236.
- ^ Potter & Mattingly (1999), pp. 223–224.
- ^ a b Potter & Mattingly (1999), p. 303.
- ^ a b Humphrey (1986), pp. 1–3.
- ^ Edmondson (1996), pp. 73–74, 106; Auguet (2012), p. 54; McClelland, John (2007). Body and Mind: Sport in Europe from the Roman Empire to the Renaissance. Routledge. p. 67.
- ^ Dyson (2010), pp. 238–239; Gagarin (2010), p. 85; Humphrey (1986), p. 461; McClelland (2007), p. 61
- ^ Wiedemann, Thomas (1995) [1992]. Emperors and Gladiators. Routledge. p. 15.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 85; Humphrey (1986), pp. 459, 461, 512, 630–631; Dyson (2010), p. 237
- ^ Dyson (2010), p. 238.
- ^ Humphrey (1986), pp. 18–21; Gagarin (2010), p. 84
- ^ Auguet (2012), pp. 131–132; Potter & Mattingly (1999), p. 237
- ^ Dyson (2010), pp. 238–239; Auguet (2012), p. 144; Dickie, Matthew (2001). Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. pp. 282–287.; D'Ambra, Eva (2007). "Racing with Death: Circus Sarcophagi and the Commemoration of Children in Roman Italy". Constructions of Childhood in Ancient Greece and Italy. American School of Classical Studies at Athens. pp. 348–349.; Rüpke (2007), p. 289
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 354; Edwards (2007), p. 59; Potter & Mattingly (1999), p. 305
- ^ Edwards (2007), p. 59; Potter & Mattingly (1999), p. 305
- ^ Humphrey (1986), pp. 1–3; Cassius Dio 66.25; Edwards (2007), p. 55
- ^ Edwards (2007), p. 49.
- ^ Edwards (2007), p. 50.
- ^ Edwards (2007), p. 55; Potter & Mattingly (1999), p. 307; McClelland (2007), p. 66, citing also Marcus Junkelmann
- ^ Suetonius. Nero. p. 12.2.; Edmondson (1996), p. 73
- ^ McDonald, Marianne; Walton, J. Michael (2007). Introduction to The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Theatre. Cambridge University Press. p. 8.
- ^ Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. Routledge. p. 81.; Edwards (2007), p. 63
- ^ Pliny. Panegyric. p. 33.1.; Edwards (2007), p. 52
- ^ Edwards (2007), pp. 66–67, 72.
- ^ Tertullian. De spectaculis. p. 12.; Edwards (2007), pp. 59–60; Potter & Mattingly (1999), p. 224
- ^ Edwards (2007), p. 212.
- ^ Bowersock, G.W. (1995). Martyrdom and Rome. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26.; Cavallo & Chartier (1999), p. 79; Huber-Rebenich, Gerlinde (1999). "Hagiographic Fiction as Entertainment". Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context. Routledge. pp. 158–178.; Llewelyn, S.R.; Nobbs, A.M. (2002). "The Earliest Dated Reference to Sunday in the Papyri". New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 109.; Hildebrandt, Henrik (2006). "Early Christianity in Roman Pannonia – Fact or Fiction?". Studia Patristica: Papers Presented at the Fourteenth International Conference on Patristic Studies Held in Oxford 2003. Peeters. pp. 59–64.; Ando (2000), p. 382
- ^ Oxford Latin Dictionary (reprint ed.). Clarendon Press. 1985 [1982]. pp. 1048–1049.; Habinek (2005), pp. 5, 143
- ^ Rawson (2003), p. 128.
- JSTOR 282704.
- S2CID 162861940.
- S2CID 248520932.
- ^ Eyben, Emiel (1977). Restless Youth in Ancient Rome. Routledge. pp. 79–82, 110.
- ^ Torelli, M. (1988). "Piazza Armerina: Note di iconologia". In Rizza, G. (ed.). La Villa romana del Casale di Piazza Armerina. Catania. p. 152.
- ISBN 0-521-00230-3.
- ^ Hanson, Ann Ellis (1991). "The Restructuring of Female Physiology at Rome". Les écoles médicales à Rome. Université de Nantes. pp. 260, 264., particularly citing the Gynecology of Soranus
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 230.
- ^ a b Coon, Lynda L. (1997). Sacred Fictions: Holy Women and Hagiography in Late Antiquity. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 57–58.
- ^ a b c Bieber, Margarete (1959). "Roman Men in Greek Himation (Romani Palliati) a Contribution to the History of Copying". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 103 (3): 374–417.
- ^ Vout (2009), pp. 204–220, especially 206, 211; Métraux, Guy P.R. (2008). "Prudery and Chic in Late Antique Clothing". Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture. University of Toronto Press. p. 286.
- ^ a b Vout (2009), p. 216.
- ^ Métraux (2008), pp. 282–283.
- ^ Cleland, Liza (2007). Greek and Roman Dress from A to Z. Routledge. p. 194.
- ^ a b Gagarin (2010), p. 231.
- ^ Vout (2009), p. 218.
- ^ Tertullian, De Pallio 5.2
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 232.
- ISBN 184176843X.
- ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0.
- ^ Vout (2009), p. 217.
- ^ Kousser (2008), pp. 4–5, 8.
- ^ Kousser (2008), p. 1; Potter (2009), pp. 75–76
- ^ Gazda (1991), pp. 1–3.
- ^ Zanker, Paul (1998) [1995]. Pompeii: Public and Private Life. Translated by Schneider, Deborah Lucas. Harvard University Press. p. 189.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), pp. 312–313.
- S2CID 163488573.
- ^ Zanker, Paul (1988). The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus. University of Michigan Press. pp. 5ff.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 451.
- ^ Fejfer, Jane (2008). Roman Portraits in Context. Walter de Gruyter. p. 10.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 453.
- ^ Kousser (2008), p. 13.
- ^ Strong, Donald (1988) [1976]. Roman Art (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. p. 11.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), pp. 274–275.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), pp. 242.
- ^ Newby, Zahra (2011). "Myth and Death: Roman Mythological Sarcophagi". A Companion to Greek Mythology. Blackwell. p. 301.
- ^ Elsner & Huskinson (2011), p. 14.
- ^ Elsner & Huskinson (2011), p. 12.
- ^ Elsner & Huskinson (2011), p. 1, 9.
- ^ a b Gagarin (2010), p. 463.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 459.
- ^ Dunbabin (1999), pp. 254ff.
- ^ "Antioch and the Bath of Apolausis – History of the excavations". J. Paul Getty Museum. 30 March 2016. Archived from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 202.
- , p. 421
- JSTOR 1192603.; Potter & Mattingly (1999), p. 257
- ^ Conte, Gian Biagio (1994). Latin Literature: A History. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 128.
- JSTOR 294916.; Starks, John H. Jr. (2008). "Pantomime Actresses in Latin Inscriptions". New Directions in Ancient Pantomime. Oxford University Press. pp. 95, 14ff.
- ^ a b Naerebout (2009), p. 146.
- ^ .
- ^ Habinek (2005), pp. 90ff.
- ^ Sonia Mucznik. Musicians and Musical Instruments in Roman and Early Byzantine Mosaics of the Land of Israel: Sources, Precursors and Significance. Tel Aviv University.
- ^ Naerebout (2009), pp. 146ff.
- ^ Naerebout (2009), pp. 154, 157.
- ^ Naerebout (2009), pp. 156–157.
- ^ Richlin, Amy (1993). "Not before Homosexuality: The Materiality of the cinaedus and the Roman Law against Love between Men". Journal of the History of Sexuality. 3 (4): 539–540.
- ^ Csapo, Eric; Slater, William J. (1994). The Context of Ancient Drama. University of Michigan Press. p. 377.
- ^ MacMullen, Ramsay (1984). Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A. D. 100–400). Yale University Press. pp. 74–75, 84.
- ^ Harris (1989), p. 5; Johnson & Parker (2009), pp. 3–4
- ^ .
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 89, 97–98.
- ^ Mattern, Susan P. (1999). Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. University of California Press. p. 197.
- ^ a b Morgan, Teresa (1998). Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2.; Johnson & Parker (2009), p. 46ff; Peachin (2011), p. 97
- ^ Ando (2000), p. 101, see also p. 87 on "the government's obsessive documentation".
- ^ Ando (2000), p. 101.
- ^ Phang, Sara Elise (2011). "Military Documents, Languages, and Literacy". A Companion to the Roman Army. Blackwell. pp. 286–301.
- ^ Ando (2000), pp. 86–87.
- ^ Mattern (1999), p. 197.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), pp. 19–20.
- ^ Harris (1989), pp. 9, 48, 215, 248, 26, 248, 258–269; Johnson & Parker (2009), pp. 47, 54, 290ff
- ^ Beard, Mary (1991). "Ancient Literacy and the Written Word in Roman Religion". Literacy in the Roman World. University of Michigan Press. pp. 59ff.; Dickie, Matthew (2001). Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. pp. 94–95, 181–182, 196.; Potter (2009), p. 555; Harris (1989), pp. 29, 218–219
- ^ Johnson (2010), pp. 17–18.
- ^ Johnson (2010), p. 17, citing Martial, Epigrams, 1.2, 14.184–92; Cavallo & Chartier (1999), pp. 83–84
- ^ Johnson (2010), pp. 17–18; Cavallo & Chartier (1999), pp. 84–85
- ^ a b Marshall (1976), p. 253.
- ^ Cavallo & Chartier (1999), p. 71; Marshall (1976), p. 253, citing on the book trade in the provinces Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 9.11.2; Martial Epigrams 7.88; Horace, Carmina 2.20.13f. and Ars Poetica 345; Ovid, Tristia 4.9.21 and 4.10.128; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 35.2.11; Sidonius, Epistulae 9.7.1.
- ^ Marshall (1976), p. 253; Strabo 13.1.54, 50.13.419; Martial. Epigrams. p. 2.8.; Lucian, Adversus Indoctum 1
- ^ Marshall (1976), pp. 252–264.
- ^ Cavallo & Chartier (1999), pp. 67–68.
- ^ Marshall (1976), pp. 257–260.
- ^ Pliny the Elder. Epistulae. p. 1.8.2.; CIL 5.5262 (= ILS 2927); Marshall (1976), p. 265
- ^ Marshall (1976), pp. 261–262; Cavallo & Chartier (1999), p. 70
- ^ Tacitus, Agricola 2.1 and Annales 4.35 and 14.50; Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 7.19.6; Suetonius, Augustus 31, Tiberius 61.3, and Caligula 16
- ^ Suetonius. Domitian. p. 10.; Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. p. 9.2.65.; Marshall (1976), p. 263
- ^ Johnson & Parker (2009), pp. 114ff, 186ff; Potter (2009), p. 372
- ^ Cavallo & Chartier (1999), pp. 68–69, 78–79.
- ^ Cavallo & Chartier (1999), pp. 81–82.
- ^ Harris (1989), p. 3.
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 19.
- ISBN 978-0-674-03327-6. Archivedfrom the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
- ^ Cavallo & Chartier (1999), p. 86.
- ^ Cavallo & Chartier (1999), pp. 15–16.
- ^ Peachin (2011), p. 95.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 84–85.
- ^ Laes (2011), pp. 113–116.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 90, 92.
- ^ Laes (2011), p. 108; Peachin (2011), p. 89
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 87–89.
- ^ Laes (2011), p. 122.
- ^ a b Peachin (2011), p. 90.
- ^ Laes (2011), pp. 107–108, 132.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 93–94.
- ^ a b Peachin (2011), p. 89.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 88, 106.
- ^ Laes (2011), p. 109.
- ^ Laes (2011), p. 132.
- ^ Potter (2009), pp. 439, 442.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 102–103, 105.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 104–105.
- ^ Peachin (2011), pp. 103, 106.
- ^ Peachin (2011), p. 110.
- ^ Peachin (2011), p. 107.
- ^ Harris (1989), p. 5.
- S2CID 163530509.
- ^ Potter (2009), p. 598.
- ^ Laes (2011), pp. 109–110.
- ^ Peachin (2011), p. 88.
- ^ Laes (2011), p. 110; Gagarin (2010), p. 19
- ^ Gagarin (2010), p. 18.
- ^ The wide-ranging 21st-century scholarship on the Second Sophistic includes Goldhill, Simon (2001). Being Greek under Rome: Cultural Identity, the Second Sophistic and the Development of Empire. Cambridge University Press.; Borg, Barbara E., ed. (2004). Paideia: The World of the Second Sophistic. De Gruyter.; Whitmarsh, Tim (2005). The Second Sophistic. Oxford University Press.
- ^ a b Habinek, Thomas N. (1998). The Politics of Latin Literature: Writing, Identity, and Empire in Ancient Rome. Princeton University Press. pp. 122–123.
- ^ Rawson (2003), p. 80.
- ^ James, Sharon L. (2003). Learned Girls and Male Persuasion: Gender and Reading in Roman Love Elegy. University of California Press. pp. 21–25.; Johnson, W.R. (2012). "Propertius". A Companion to Roman Love Elegy. Blackwell. pp. 42–43.; James, Sharon L. (2012). "Elegy and New Comedy". A Companion to Roman Love Elegy. Blackwell. p. 262.
- ^ Roberts (1989), p. 3.
- ^ Aetas Ovidiana; McNelis, Charles (2007). "Ovidian Strategies in Early Imperial Literature". A Companion to Ovid. Blackwell. p. 397.
- ^ van Dam, Harm-Jan (2008). "Wandering Woods Again: From Poliziano to Grotius". The Poetry of Statius. Brill. pp. 45ff.
- ^ Albrecht (1997), p. 1294.
- ^ Roberts (1989), p. 70.
- ISBN 978-1-4073-6071-3.
- ^ Rüpke (2007), p. 4.
- ^ Bunson, Matthew (1995). A Dictionary of the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press. p. 246.
- ^ جواد علي, المفصل في تاريخ العرب قبل الإسلام (Jawad Ali, Al-Mufassal fi Tarikh Al-'Arab Qabl Al-Islam; "Commentary on the History of the Arabs Before Islam"), Baghdad, 1955–1983; Harland, P. (2003). "Imperial Cults within Local Cultural Life: Associations in Roman Asia". (originally published in) Ancient History Bulletin / Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte). Vol. 17. pp. 91–103.
- ^ Rüpke (2007), p. 4; Isaac, Benjamin H. (2004). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 449.; Frend, W.H.C. (1967). Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church: A Study of Conflict from the Maccabees to Donatus. Doubleday. p. 106.; Huskinson, Janet (2000). Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire. Routledge. p. 261.. See, for instance, the altar dedicated by a Roman citizen and depicting a sacrifice conducted in the Roman manner for the Germanic goddess Vagdavercustis in the 2nd century AD.
- S2CID 161203730.
- ISBN 90-04-07179-2.
- .
- ^ Tacitus. Annals. p. .
- S2CID 161356789.
- ^ Pliny. "Epistle to Trajan on the Christians". Archived from the original on 11 August 2011.
- .
- ^ Bowersock, Brown & Grabar (1999), p. 625.
- .
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8308-2722-0.
- ISBN 978-3-598-77828-5.
- ^ Hunt, David (1998). "2, Julian". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.). Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 13. Cambridge University Press. p. 68.
- ISBN 0-674-01019-1.
- ^ Brown, Peter (1993). "The Problem of Christianization" (PDF). Proceedings of the British Academy. 84. Oxford University Press: 90. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
- ^ Salzman, Michele Renee (1993). "The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 42 (3). Franz Steiner Verlag: 362–378.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-30200-5.
- ISBN 978-90-04-19237-9.
- from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
- ^ a b Brewer (2005), p. 127.
- from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
- ^ Rüpke (2007), pp. 406–426.
- ^ On vocabulary, see Schilling, Robert (1992). "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion". Roman and European Mythologies. University of Chicago Press. p. 110.
- ISBN 978-1-4381-2659-3.
- ISBN 978-1-4240-6959-0.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, History of Europe, The Romans. 2008.
- ISBN 978-0-435-32754-5.
- ^ Briggs, Ward (2010). "United States". A Companion to the Classical Tradition. Blackwell. pp. 279ff.
- ISBN 0-300-03882-8.
- ^ Vale, Lawrence J. (1992). Architecture, Power, and National Identity. Yale University Press. pp. 11, 66–67.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-5986-1.
- ISBN 978-0-520-26551-6.
- ^ Briggs (2010), pp. 282–286; Wood (2011), pp. 60, 66, 73–74, 239
Sources
- ISBN 978-0-543-92749-1.
- Adams, J. N. (2003). "'Romanitas' and the Latin Language". Classical Quarterly. 53 (1): 184–205. .
- ISBN 978-90-04-10709-0.
- ISBN 978-0-520-22067-6.
- Auguet, Roland (2012). Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-09343-3.
- ISBN 978-0-415-16524-2.
- Boardman, John, ed. (2000). The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire, A.D. 70–192. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26335-1.
- ISBN 978-0-415-22295-2.
- ISBN 978-0-674-51173-6.
- Bradley, Keith (1994). Slavery and Society at Rome. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37887-1.
- ISBN 978-0-521-30199-2.
- ISBN 978-0-7456-1936-1.
- ISBN 978-0-520-08429-2.
- ISBN 978-0-521-44192-6.
- Dyson, Stephen L. (2010). Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0101-0.
- Edmondson, J.C. (1996). "Dynamic Arenas: Gladiatorial Presentations in the City of Rome and the Construction of Roman Society during the Early Empire". Roman Theater and Society. University of Michigan Press.
- Edwards, Catharine (2007). Death in Ancient Rome. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11208-5.
- ISBN 978-3-11-020213-7.
- Freeman, Charles (2000) [1999]. The Greek achievement: the Foundation of the Western World. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-88515-2.
- Frier, Bruce W.; McGinn, Thomas A. (2004). A Casebook on Roman Family Law. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516185-4.
- Gagarin, Michael, ed. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517072-6.
- ISBN 978-0-500-05124-5.
- ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4.
Commodus Gibbon
- ISBN 978-0-8018-8105-3.
- ISBN 978-0-674-03381-8.
- S2CID 162766304.
- ISBN 978-0-19-958671-4.
- Holleran, Claire (2012). Shopping in Ancient Rome: The Retail Trade in the Late Republic and the Principate. Oxford Universwity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-969821-9.
- Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.
- Johnson, William A.; Parker, Holt N. (2009). Ancient Literacies: The Culture of Reading in Greece and Rome. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-971286-1.
- Johnson, William A. (2010). Readers and Reading Culture in the High Roman Empire: A Study of Elite Communities. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972105-4.
- JSTOR 2591177.
- ISBN 978-0-300-10202-4.
- Jones, R. F. J.; Bird, D. G. (2012). "Roman Gold-Mining in North-West Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna". Journal of Roman Studies. 62: 59–74. S2CID 162096359.
- ISBN 978-0-19-280391-7.
- ISBN 978-0-521-87782-4.
- Laes, Christian (2011). Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89746-4.
- Marshall, Anthony J. (1976). "Library Resources and Creative Writing at Rome". Phoenix. 30 (3): 252–264. JSTOR 1087296.
- Millar, Fergus (2012). "Empire and City, Augustus to Julian: Obligations, Excuses and Status". Journal of Roman Studies. 73: 76–96. S2CID 159799017.
- ISBN 978-0-19-970761-4.
- Naerebout, Frederick G. (2009). "Dance in the Roman Empire and Its Discontents". Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire. Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (5–7 July 2007). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17481-8.
- ISBN 978-0-472-10096-5.
- Peachin, Michael, ed. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518800-4.
- ISBN 978-0-472-08568-2.
- ISBN 978-1-4051-9918-6.
- Rochette, Bruno (2012). "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire". A Companion to the Latin Language. pp. 549–563. ISBN 978-1-4443-4339-7. Archivedfrom the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
- Rochette, Bruno (2018). "Was there a Roman linguistic imperialism during the Republic and the early Principate?". Lingue e Linguaggio (1/2018): 107–128. from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
- Rochette, Bruno (2023). Mullen, Alex (ed.). "The Attitude of the Roman Emperors towards Language Practices". Social Factors in the Latinization of the Roman West (1 ed.). Oxford: Oxford Academic: 258–285. ISBN 978-0-19-888729-4. Archivedfrom the original on 22 December 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-9460-4.
- ISBN 978-0-19-151423-4.
- Roberts, Michael John (1989). The Jeweled Style: Poetry and Poetics in Late Antiquity. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2265-2.
- ISBN 978-0-470-76645-3.
- ISBN 978-0-8018-3692-3.
- ISBN 0-8047-2630-2.
- Virgil. Aeneid.
- .
- Winterling, Aloys (2009). Politics and Society in Imperial Rome. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-7969-0.
- Wiseman, T.P. (1970). "The Definition of Eques Romanus". Historia. 19 (1): 67–83.
- ISBN 978-1-101-51514-3.