Roman province
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Politics of ancient Rome |
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Senatus consultum ultimum |
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The Roman provinces (
For centuries it was the largest administrative unit of the foreign possessions of ancient Rome.[1] With the administrative reform initiated by Diocletian, it became a third level administrative subdivision of the Roman Empire, or rather a subdivision of the imperial dioceses (in turn subdivisions of the imperial prefectures).[1]
History
A province was the basic and, until the Tetrarchy (from AD 293), the largest territorial and administrative unit of the empire's territorial possessions outside Roman Italy.
During the republic and early empire, provinces were generally governed by politicians of
Republican period
The English word province comes from the Latin word provincia.[2] The Latin term provincia had an equivalent in eastern, Greek-speaking parts of the Greco-Roman world. In the Greek language, a province was called an eparchy (Greek: ἐπαρχίᾱ, eparchia), with a governor called an eparch (Greek: ἔπαρχος, eparchos).[3]
Emergence
The Latin provincia, during the middle republic, referred not to a territory, but to a task assigned to a Roman magistrate. That task might require using the military command powers of imperium but otherwise could even be a task assigned to a junior magistrates without imperium: for example, the treasury was the provincia of a quaestor and the civil jurisdiction of the urban praetor was the urbana provincia.[2] In the middle and late republican authors like Plautus, Terence, and Cicero, the word referred something akin to a modern ministerial portfolio:[4] "when... the senate assigned provinciae to the various magistrates... what they were doing was more like allocating a portfolio than putting people in charge of geographic areas".[5]
The first commanders dispatched with provinciae were for the purpose of waging war and to command an army. However, merely that a provincia was assigned did not mean the Romans made that territory theirs. For example,
In the middle republic, the administration of a territory – whether taxation or jurisdictrion – had basically no relationship with whether that place was assigned as a provincia by the senate. Rome would even intervene on territorial disputes which were part of no provincia at all and were not administered by Rome.[8] The territorial province, called a "permanent" provincia in the scholarship, emerged only gradually.
Permanent provincia
The acquisition of territories, however, through the middle republic created the recurrent task of defending and administering some place. The first "permanent" provincia was that of Sicily, created after the First Punic War. In the immediate aftermath, a quaestor was sent to Sicily to look out for Roman interests but eventually, praetors were dispatched as well. The sources differ as to when sending a praetor became normal: Appian reports 241 BC; Solinus indicates 227 BC instead. Regardless, the change likely reflected Roman unease about Carthaginian power: quaestors could not command armies or fleets; praetors could and initially seem to have held largely garrison duties.[9] This first province started a permanent shift in Roman thinking about provincia. Instead of being a task of military expansion, it became a recurrent defensive assignment to oversee conquered territories. These defensive assignments, with few opportunities to gain glory, were less desirable and therefore became regularly assigned to the praetors.[10]
Only around 180 BC did provinces take on a more geographically defined position when a border was established to separate the two commanders assigned to Hispania on the river Baetis.[11] Later provinces, once campaigns were complete, were all largely defined geographically.[12] Once this division of permanent and temporary provinciae emerged, magistrates assigned to permanent provinces also came under pressures to achieve as much as possible during their terms. Whenever a military crisis occurred near some province, it was normally reassigned to one of the consuls; praetors were left with the garrison duties.[13] In the permanent provinces, the Roman commanders were initially not intended as administrators. However, the presence of the commander with forces sufficient to coerce compliance made him an obvious place to seek final judgement. A governor's legal jurisdiction thus grew from the demands of the provincial inhabitants for authoritative settlement of disputes.[14]
In the absence of opportunities for conquest and with little oversight for their activities, many praetorian governors settled on extorting the provincials. This profiteering threatened Roman control by unnecessarily angering the province's subject populations and was regardless dishonourable. It eventually drew a reaction from the senate, which reacted with laws to rein in the governors.[15] After initial experimentation with ad hoc panels of inquest, various laws were passed, such as the lex Calpurnia de repetundis in 149 BC, which established a permanent court to try corruption cases; troubles with corruption and laws reacting to it continued through the republican era.[16] By the end of the republic, a multitude of laws had been passed on how a governor would complete his task, requiring presence in the province, regulating how he could requisition goods from provincial communities, limiting the number of years he could serve in the province, etc.[17]
Assignment
Prior to 123 BC, the senate assigned consular provinces as it wished, usually in its first meeting of the consular year. The specific provinces to be assigned were normally determined by lot or by mutual agreement among the commanders; only extraordinarily did the senate assign a command extra sortem (outside of sortition).
While many of the provinces had been assigned to sitting praetors in the earlier part of the second century, with new praetorships created to fill empty provincial commands, by the start of the first century it had become uncommon for praetors to hold provincial commands during their formal annual term. Instead they generally took command as
Also important was the assertion of popular authority over the assignment of provincial commands. This started with Gaius Marius, who had an allied tribune introduce a law transferring to him the already-taken province of Numidia (then held by Quintus Caecilius Metellus), allowing Marius to assume command of the Jugurthine War.[24] This innovation destabilised the system of assigning provincial commands, exacerbated internal political tensions, and later allowed ambitious politicians to assemble for themselves enormous commands which the senate would never have approved: the Pompeian lex Gabinia of 67 BC granted Pompey all land within 50 miles of the Mediterranean; Caesar's Gallic command that encompassed three normal provinces.[25]
Late Republican period
In the late Republican period, Roman authorities generally preferred that a majority of people in Rome's provinces venerated, respected, and worshipped gods from Rome proper and Roman Italy to an extent, alongside normal services done in honor of their "traditional" gods.[26]
Transition to empire
The increasing practices of prorogation and statutorily-defined "super commands" driven by popularis political tactics[27] undermined the republican constitutional principle of annually-elected magistracies. This allowed the powerful men to amass disproportionate wealth and military power through their provincial commands, which was one of the major factors in the transition from a republic to an imperial autocracy.[28][29][30][31][32]
The senate attempted to push back against these commands in many instances: it preferred to break up any large war into multiple territorially separated commands; for similar reasons, it opposed the lex Gabinia which gave Pompey an overlapping command over large portions of the Mediterranean.[33] The senate, which had long acted as a check on aristocratic ambitions, was unable to stop these immense commands, which culminated eventually with the reduction of the number of meaningfully-independent governors during the triumviral period to three men and, with the end of the republic, to one man.
Early imperial period
During his sixth and seventh consulships (28 and 27 BC), Augustus began a process which saw the republic return to "normality": he shared the fasces that year with his consular colleague month-by-month and announced the abolition of the triumvirate by the end of the year in accordance with promises to do so at the close of the civil wars.[34] At the start of 27 BC, Augustus formally had a provincial command over all of Rome's provinces. That year, in his "first settlement", he ostentatiously returned his control of them and their attached armies to the senate, likely by declaring that the task assigned to him either by the lex Titia creating the Triumvirate or that the war on Cleopatra and Antony was complete.[35] In return, at a carefully-managed meeting of the senate, he was given commands over Spain, Gaul, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt to hold for ten years; these provinces contained 22 of the 28 extant Roman legions (over 80 per cent) and contained all prospective military theatres.[36]
The provinces that were assigned to Augustus became known as imperial provinces and the remaining provinces, largely demilitarised and confined to the older republican conquests, became known as public or senatorial provinces, as their commanders were still assigned by the senate on an annual basis consistent with tradition.[37] Because no one man could command in practically all the border-regions of the empire at once, Augustus appointed subordinate legates for each of the provinces with the title legatus Augusti pro praetore. These lieutenant legati probably held imperium but, due to their lack of an independent command, were unable to triumph and could be replaced by their superior (Augustus) at any time.[38] These arrangements were likely based on the precedent of Pompey's proconsulship over the Spanish provinces after 55 BC entirely through legates, while he stayed in the vicinity of Rome.[39][40] In contrast, the public provinces continued to be governed by proconsuls with formally independent commands.[37] In only three of the public provinces were there any armies: Africa, Illyricum, and Macedonia; after Augustus' Balkan wars, only Africa retained a legion.[41]
To make this monopolisation of military commands palatable, Augustus separated prestige from military importance and inverted it. The title pro praetore had gone out of use by the end of the republic and was regardless in inferior status to a proconsul. More radically, Egypt (which was sufficiently powerful that a commander there could start a rebellion against the emperor) was commanded by an equestrian prefect, "a very low title indeed" as prefects were normally low-ranking officers and equestrians were not normally part of the elite.[42] In Augustus' "second settlement" of 23 BC, he gave up his continual holding of the consulship in exchange for a general proconsulship – with a special dispensation from the law that nullified imperium within the city of Rome – over the imperial provinces.[43] He also gave himself, through the senate, a general grant of imperium maius, which gave him priority over the ordinary governors of the public provinces, allowing him to interfere in their affairs.[44]
Within the public and imperial provinces there also existed distinctions of rank. In the public provinces, the provinces of Africa and Asia were given only to ex-consuls; ex-praetors received the others. The imperial provinces eventually produced a three-tier system with prefects and procurators, legates pro praetore who were ex-praetors, and legates pro praetore who were ex-consuls.[45] The public provinces' governors normally served only one year; the imperial provinces' governors on the other hand normally served several years before rotating out.[46] The extent to which the emperor exercised control over all the provinces increased during the imperial period: Tiberius, for example, once reprimanded legates in the imperial provinces for failing to forward financial reports to the senate; by the reign of Claudius, however, the senatorial provinces' proconsuls were regularly issued with orders directly from the emperor.[47]
Late imperial period
The emperor
Although the Caesars were soon eliminated from the picture, the four administrative resorts were restored in 318 by Emperor
Detailed information on the arrangements during this period is contained in the
List of provinces
Republican provinces
- 241 BC – Carthaginians and annexed at the end of the First Punic War
- 237 BC – Sardinia and Corsica; these two islands were taken over from the Carthaginians and annexed soon after the Mercenary War, in 238 BC and 237 BC respectively
- 197 BC – Hispania Citerior; along the east coast of the Iberian Peninsula; part of the territories taken over from the Carthaginians
- 197 BC – Hispania Ulterior; along the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula; part of the territories taken over from the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War
- 147 BC – Macedonia was annexed after the Achaean War
- 146 BC – Africa (modern-day Tunisia, eastern Algeria and western Libya); created after the destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War
- 129 BC – Attalid kingdom, in western Anatolia (now in Turkey), bequeathed to Rome by its last king, Attalus III, in 133 BC.
- 120 BC – Gallia Cisalpina (Gaul on this same side of the Alps, in northern Italy). It was annexed following attacks on the allied Greek city of Massalia (Marseille).
- 67 BC – Crete and Cyrenaica; Cyrenaica was bequeathed to Rome in 78 BC. However, it was not organised as a province. It was incorporated into the province of Creta et Cyrenae when Crete was annexed in 67 BC.
- 63 BC – Nicomedes IV, in 74 BC. It was organised as a Roman province at the end of the Third Mithridatic War (73–63 BC) by Pompey, who incorporated the western part of the defeated Kingdom of Pontusinto it in 63 BC.
- 63 BC – Syria; Pompey deposed the last Seleucid king Philip II Philoromaeus, creating the province of Syria.
- 63 BC – Cilicia; Cilicia was created as a province in the sense of area of military command in 102 BC in a campaign against piracy. The Romans controlled only a small area. In 74 BC Lycia and Pamphylia (to the east) were added to the small Roman possessions in Cilicia. Cilicia came fully under Roman control at the end of the Third Mithridatic War (73–63 BC), reorganised by Pompey in 63 BC.
- 58 BC – Cyprus was annexed after the death of its last king Ptolemy of Cyprus and added to the province of Cilicia, creating the province of Cilicia et Cyprus.
- 46 BC – Juba I) as a client king (30–25 BC).
Provinces of the Principate
Under Augustus
- 30 BC – Cleopatra VII in 30 BC. It was the first imperial province in that it was Augustus' own domain as the Egyptians recognised him as their new pharaoh. Its proper initial name was Alexandrea et Aegyptus. It was governed by Augustus' praefectus, Alexandreae et Aegypti.
- 27 BC – Macedonia(senatorial propraetorial province)
- 27 BC – Hispania Tarraconensis; former Hispania Citerior (northern, central and eastern Spain), created with the reorganisation of the provinces in Hispania by Augustus (imperial proconsular province).
- 27 BC – Lusitania (Portugal and Extremadura in Spain), created with the reorganisation of the provinces in Hispania by Augustus (imperial proconsular province)
- 27 BC – Batonian War. Initially a senatorial province, it became an imperial propraetorial province in 11 BC, during the Pannonian War. It was dissolved and the new provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia were created during the reign of Vespasian (69–79). In 107, Pannonia was divided into Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior– imperial provinces (proconsular and propraetorial respectively).
- 27 BC or 16–13 BC – Aquitania (south-western France) province created in the territories in Gaul conquered by Julius Caesar; there is uncertainty as to whether it was created with Augustus’ first visit and the first censuson Gaul or during Augustus' visit in 16–13 (imperial proconsular province)
- 27 BC or 16–13 BC – Gallia Lugdunensis (central and part of northern France) province created in the territories in Gaul conquered by Julius Caesar; there is uncertainty as to whether it was created with Augustus’ first visit and the first census on Gaul or during Augustus’ visit in 16–13 (imperial proconsular province)
- 25 BC – Galatia (central Anatolia, Turkey), formerly a client kingdom, it was annexed by Augustus when Amyntas, its last king, died (imperial propraetorial province)
- 25 BC – Africa Proconsularis. The client kingdom of Numidia under king Juba II(30 - 25 BC), previously between 46 - 30 BC the province Africa Nova, was abolished, and merged with the province Africa Vetus, creating the province Africa Proconsularis (except territory of Western Numidia).
- 22 BC – Rhine; there is uncertainty as to whether it was created with Augustus’ first visit and the first census on Gaul or during Augustus' visit in 16–13 (imperial proconsular province)
- 15 BC – Raetia (imperial procuratorial province)
- 14 BC – Hispania Baetica; former Hispania Ulterior (southern Spain); created with the reorganisation of the provinces in Hispania by Augustus (senatorial propraetorial province). The name derives from Betis, the Latin name for the Guadalquivir River.
- 7 BC – Germania Antiqua, lost after three Roman legions were routed in 9 AD
- AD 6? – Moesia Inferior(imperial proconsular provinces).
- AD 6 – Peraea; renamed Syria Palaestina by Hadrianin AD 135 and upgraded to proconsular province.
Under Tiberius
- AD 17 – Cappadocia (central Anatolia – Turkey); imperial propraetorial (later proconsular) province, created after the death of its last client king Archelaus.
Under Claudius
- AD 42 – Mauretania Tingitana (northern Morocco); after the death of Ptolemy, the last king of Mauretania, in AD 40, his kingdom was annexed. It was begun by Caligula and was completed by Claudius with the defeat of the rebels. In AD 42, Claudius divided it into two provinces (imperial procuratorial province).
- AD 42 – Mauretania Caesariensis, (western and central Algeria), after the death of Ptolemy, the last king of Mauretania, in AD 40, his kingdom was annexed. It was begun by Caligula and was completed by Claudius with the defeat of the rebels. In AD 42 Claudius divided it into two provinces( imperial procuratorial province).
- AD 41/53 – Noricum (central Austria, north-eastern Slovenia and part of Bavaria), it was incorporated into the empire in 16 BC. It was called a province, but it remained a client kingdom under the control of an imperial procurator. It was turned into a proper province during the reign of Claudius (41–54) (imperial propraetorial province).
- AD 43 – River Humber to the Severn Estuary. Wales was finally subdued in 78. In 78–84 Agricola conquered the north of England and Scotland. Scotland was then abandoned (imperial proconsular province). In 197 Septimius Severus divided Britannia into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. Imperial provinces (proconsular and propraetorial respectively).
- AD 43 – Lycia annexed by Claudius (in 74 AD merged with Pamphylia to form Lycia et Pamphylia).
- AD 46 – Thracia (Thrace, north-eastern Greece, south-eastern Bulgaria and European Turkey), it was annexed by Claudius (imperial procuratorial province).
- AD 47? – Alpes Atrectianae et Poeninae (between Italy and Switzerland), Augustus subdued its inhabitants, the Salassi, in 15 BC. It was incorporated into Raetia. The date of the creation of the province is uncertain. It is usually set at the date of Claudius' foundation of Forum Claudii Vallensium (Martigny), which became its capital (imperial procuratorial province).
Under Nero
- AD 62 – Pontus (the eastern half of the Kingdom of Pontus) together with Colchis annexed, later incorporated in the province of Cappadocia (probably under Emperor Trajan).
- AD 63 – Moesia Inferior. In 68 AD Galbarestored the Bosporan Kingdom as a client kingdom.
- AD 63? – Alpes Maritimae (on the French Alps), created as a protectorate by Augustus, it probably became a province under Nero when Alpes Cottiae became a province (imperial procuratorial province)
- AD 63 – Alpes Cottiae (between France and Italy), in 14 BC it became a nominal prefecture which was run by the ruling dynasty of the Cotii. It was named after the king, Marcus Julius Cottius. It became a province in 63 (imperial procuratorial province).
Under Vespasian
- AD 72 – Commagene, its last client king Antiochus IV was deposed and Commagene was annexed to Syria.
- AD 72 – Lesser Armenia, its last client king Aristobulus of Chalcis was deposed and Lesser Armenia was annexed to Syria.
- AD 72 – Western mountainous parts of Cilicia, formed into three client kingdoms established by Augustus, were disestablished, and merged with the imperial province of Cilicia.
- AD 74 – Lycia et Pamphylia. Vespasian (reigned AD 69–79) merged Lycia, annexed by Claudius, and Pamphylia which had been a part of the province of Galatia.
Under Domitian
- AD 83/84 – Germania Superior (southern Germany) The push into southern Germany up to the Agri Decumates by Domitian created the necessity to create this province, which had been a military district in Gallia Belgica when it was restricted to the west bank of the River Rhine (imperial proconsular province).
- AD 83/84 – Germania Inferior (Netherlands south of the River Rhine, part of Belgium, and part of Germany west of the Rhine) originally a military district under Gallia Belgica, created when Germania Superior was created (imperial proconsular province).
- AD 92 – Chalcis was annexed to Syria after the death of its last ruler, tetrarch Aristobulus of Chalcis.
Under Trajan
- AD 100 – Territories of Paneas were annexed to Syria after the death of king Herod Agrippa II.
- AD 106 – Arabia, formerly the Kingdom of Nabataea, it was annexed without resistance by Trajan (imperial propraetorial province)
- AD 107 – Tres Daciae) in 166 by Marcus Aurelius: Porolissensis, Apulensis and Malvensis (imperial procuratorial provinces). Abandoned by Aurelianin 271.
- AD 103/114 - Epirus Nova(in western Greece and southern Albania), Epirus was originally under the province of Macedonia. It was placed under Achaia in 27 BC except for its northernmost part, which remained part of Macedonia. It became a separate province under Trajan, sometime between 103 and 114 AD, and was renamed Epirus Nova (New Epirus) (imperial procuratorial province).
- AD 114 – Armenia, annexed by Trajan, who deposed its client king. In 118 Hadrian restored this client kingdom
- AD 116 – Mesopotamia (Iraq) seized from the Parthians and annexed by Trajan, who invaded the Parthian Empire in late 115. Given back to the Parthians by Hadrian in 118. In 198 Septimius Severus conquered a small area in the north and named it Mesopotamia. It was attacked twice by the Persians (imperial praefectorial province).
- AD 116 – Assyria, Trajan suppressed a revolt by Assyrians in Mesopotamia and created the province. Hadrian relinquished it in 118.
Under Septimius Severus
- AD 193 – Africa Proconsularis by Septimius Severus(imperial propraetorial province).
- AD 194 – Syriainto these two units in the north and the south respectively. Imperial provinces (proconsular and propraetorial respectively).
Under Caracalla
- AD 214 – Osrhoene, this kingdom (in northern Mesopotamia, in parts of today's Iraq, Syria and Turkey) was annexed.
Under Aurelian
- AD 271 – Dacia Aureliana (most of Bulgaria and Serbia) created by Aurelian in the territory of the former Moesia Superior after his evacuation of Dacia Trajana beyond the River Danube.
- Many of the above provinces were under Roman military control or under the rule of Roman clients for a long time before being officially constituted as civil provinces. Only the date of the official formation of the province is marked above, not the date of conquest.
Provinces of the late empire
Primary sources for lists of provinces
Early Roman Empire provinces
- Germania (ca. 100)
- Geography (Ptolemy) (ca. 140)
Late Roman Empire provinces
- Laterculus Veronensis (ca. 310)
- Notitia dignitatum(ca. 400–420)
- Polemii Silvii(ca. 430)
- Synecdemus (ca. 520)
See also
- Ancient geography
- Classical antiquity
- Early world maps
- Ecumene
- Geography
- History of cartography
- History of the Mediterranean region
- Latin spelling and pronunciation
- List of Graeco-Roman geographers
- List of historical maps
- Local government (ancient Roman)
References
Citations
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Le province romane" (in Italian). Retrieved 20 November 2021.
- ^ a b Richardson 1992, p. 564.
- ^ Mason 1974, pp. 81, 84–86, 138–139.
- ^ Richardson 1992, pp. 564–565, citing, among others, Plaut. Capt., 156, 158, 474; Ter. Haut., 516; Cic. Cael., 26.63.
- ^ Richardson 1992, p. 565.
- ^ Richardson 1992, pp. 566–567.
- ^ Richardson 1992, p. 567.
- ^ Richardson 1992, p. 570.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 242–245.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 247.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 250–51.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 253–254.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 256–257, 263.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 266–268.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 275–276.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 279–281.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 292.
- ^ Richardson 1992, p. 573.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 298; Richardson 1992, p. 573.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 299–300.
- ^ Brennan, T Corey (2000). The praetorship in the Roman republic. Oxford University Press. pp. 626–627.
- ^ Badian 2012. Formally, the presidency of one of the permanent courts was in fact the provincia of the praetor-president.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 229–330, 341.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 304; Richardson 1992, pp. 573–574.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 306.
- ISBN 978-1-60153-123-0.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 307.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 311. "The use of populär legislation to manipulate provinciae and provincial assignment would also create the armies that brought down the republic".
- ISBN 978-0472100965.
- ^ Hekster, Olivier; Kaizer, Ted. Frontiers in the Roman world. p. 8.
- ^ Eder, W (1993). "The Augustan principate as binding link". Between republic and empire. University of California Press. p. 98.
- ^ Lintott 1999, p. 114.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 309.
- ^ Crook 1996, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 354; Aug. RG 34.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 354–355.
- ^ a b Drogula 2015, p. 355.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 355–356.
- ^ Bowman 1996, pp. 346–347.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 356–57.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 364.
- ^ Drogula 2015, p. 370. Drogula also notes that appointing a person of such low status would mean that he would not have the support necessary among the elite to challenge the emperor successfully.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 358–359.
- ^ Drogula 2015, pp. 360–363.
- ^ Bowman 1996, pp. 346, 369–370.
- ^ Bowman 1996, p. 347.
- ^ Bowman 1996, pp. 347–48, noting also that Tiberius regularly remitted embassies from cities in the senatorial provinces to the senate to allow it "an illusion of its traditional functions".
- ^ Nuovo Atlante Storico De Agostini, 1997, pp. 40–41. (In Italian)
- ^ "Note sull'«anzianità di servizio» nel lessico della legislazione imperiale romana" (in Italian). Retrieved 20 November 2021.
- ISBN 978-3-11-054478-7.
- ISBN 9780198153009. Archived from the originalon 22 May 2020.
- ^ Long, George (1866). Decline of the Roman republic: Volume 2. London.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Cassius, Dio. Historia Romana. Vol. 41. 36.
- ^ Laffi, Umberto (1992). "La provincia della Gallia Cisalpina". Athenaeum (in Italian) (80): 5–23.
- ^ Aurigemma, Salvatore. "Gallia Cisalpina". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
Sources
- Modern sources
- Badian, Ernst (2012). "Provincia/Province". provincia. Oxford University Press. )
- Bowman, Alan K; et al., eds. (1996). The Augustan empire, 43 BC–AD 69. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 10 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26430-8.
- Bowman, Alan K. "Provincial administration and taxation". In CAH2 10 (1996), pp. 344–70.
- Crook, J A. "Political history, 30 BC to AD 14". In CAH2 10 (1996), pp. 70–112.
- Drogula, Fred (2015). Commanders & command in the Roman republic and early empire. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. OCLC 905949529.
- Lintott, Andrew (1993). Imperium Romanum: politics and administration. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09375-0.
- ISBN 0-19-815068-7.
- Loewenstein, Karl (1973). The Governance of Rome. Springer. ISBN 90-247-1458-3.
- Mason, Hugh J (1974). Greek Terms for Roman Institutions: A Lexicon and Analysis. Toronto: Hakkert. ISBN 9780888660138.
- Richardson, John (1992). "The administration of the empire". In Crook, John; et al. (eds.). The last age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 BC. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 9 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 564–98. OCLC 121060.
- Other sources
- "Early imperial Roman provinces". Livius.org. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
- Scarre, Chris (1995). The Penguin historical atlas of ancient Rome. Penguin. pp. 74–75. ISBN 978-0-14-051329-5.
- Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German).
External links
- Map of the Roman Empire in the year 300
- https://web.archive.org/web/20060409205643/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-dgra/