Roman roads
Roman roads (
At the peak of Rome's development, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the capital, and the late Empire's 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great roads.[3][5] The whole comprised more than 400,000 kilometres (250,000 miles) of roads, of which over 80,500 kilometres (50,000 mi) were stone-paved.[6][7] In Gaul alone, no less than 21,000 kilometres (13,000 mi) of roadways are said to have been improved, and in Britain at least 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi).[3] The courses (and sometimes the surfaces) of many Roman roads survived for millennia; some are overlaid by modern roads.
Roman systems
"The extraordinary greatness of the Roman Empire manifests itself above all in three things: the aqueducts, the paved roads, and the construction of the drains."
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Ant. Rom. 3.67.5[8]
In the
With the exception of some outlying portions, such as Britain north of the Wall,
A road map of the empire reveals that it was generally laced with a dense network of prepared viae.
Laws and traditions
The Laws of the Twelve Tables, dated to about 450 BC, required that any public road (Latin via) be 8 Roman feet (perhaps about 2.37 m) wide where straight and twice that width where curved. These were probably the minimum widths for a via; in the later Republic, widths of around 12 Roman feet were common for public roads in rural regions, permitting the passing of two carts of standard (4 foot) width without interference to pedestrian traffic.[11] Actual practices varied from this standard. The Tables command Romans to build public roads and give wayfarers the right to pass over private land where the road is in disrepair. Building roads that would not need frequent repair therefore became an ideological objective,[clarification needed] as well as building them as straight as practicable to construct the shortest possible roads, and thus save on material.
Roman law defined the right to use a road as a servitus, or liability. The ius eundi ("right of going") established a claim to use an iter, or footpath, across private land; the ius agendi ("right of driving"), an actus, or carriage track. A via combined both types of servitutes, provided it was of the proper width, which was determined by an arbiter. The default width was the latitudo legitima of 8 feet.
Roman law and tradition forbade the use of vehicles in urban areas, except in certain cases. Married women and government officials on business could ride. The
Types
Roman roads varied from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. According to Ulpian, there were three types of roads:[9]
- Viae publicae, consulares, praetoriae or militares
- Viae privatae, rusticae, glareae or agrariae
- Viae vicinales
Viae publicae, consulares, praetoriae and militares
The first type of road included public high or main roads, constructed and maintained at the public expense, and with their soil vested in the state. Such roads led either to the sea, or to a town, or to a public river (one with a constant flow), or to another public road. Siculus Flaccus, who lived under Trajan (98–117), calls them viae publicae regalesque,[9] and describes their characteristics as follows:
- They are placed under curatores (landowners.[9]
- These roads bear the names of their constructors (e.g.
Roman roads were named after the censor who had ordered their construction or reconstruction. The same person often served afterwards as consul, but the road name is dated to his term as censor. If the road was older than the office of censor or was of unknown origin, it took the name of its destination or of the region through which it mainly passed. A road was renamed if the censor ordered major work on it, such as paving, repaving, or rerouting. With the term viae regales compare the roads of the Persian kings (who probably organized the first system of public roads) and the King's highway.[9] With the term viae militariae compare the Icknield Way (e.g., Icen-hilde-weg, or "War-way of the Iceni").[9]
However, there were many other people, besides special officials, who from time to time, and for a variety of reasons, sought to connect their names with a great public service like that of the roads.
Viae privatae, rusticae, glareae and agrariae
The second category included private or country roads, originally constructed by private individuals, in whom their soil was vested, and who had the power to dedicate them to the public use.[9] Such roads benefited from a right of way, in favor either of the public or of the owner of a particular estate. Under the heading of viae privatae were also included roads leading from the public or high roads to particular estates or settlements. These Ulpian considers to be public roads in themselves.[9]
Features off the via were connected to the via by viae rusticae, or secondary roads.[9] Both main or secondary roads might either be paved, or left unpaved, with a gravel surface, as they were in North Africa. These prepared but unpaved roads were viae glareae or sternendae ("to be strewn"). Beyond the secondary roads were the viae terrenae, "dirt roads".
Viae vicinales
The third category comprised roads at or in villages,
Siculus Flaccus describes viae vicinales as roads "de publicis quae divertunt in agros et saepe ad alteras publicas perveniunt" (which turn off the public roads into fields, and often reach to other public roads). The repairing authorities, in this case, were the magistri pagorum or magistrates of the cantons. They could require the neighboring landowners either to furnish laborers for the general repair of the viae vicinales, or to keep in repair, at their own expense, a certain length of road passing through their respective properties.[9]
Governance and financing
With the conquest of Italy, prepared viae were extended from Rome and its vicinity to outlying municipalities, sometimes overlying earlier roads. Building viae was a military responsibility and thus came under the jurisdiction of a consul. The process had a military name, viam munire, as though the via were a fortification. Municipalities, however, were responsible for their own roads, which the Romans called viae vicinales. The beauty and grandeur of the roads might tempt us to believe that any Roman citizen could use them for free, but this was not the case. Tolls abounded, especially at bridges. Often they were collected at the city gate. Freight costs were made heavier still by import and export taxes. These were only the charges for using the roads. Costs of services on the journey went up from there.
Financing road building was a Roman government responsibility. Maintenance, however, was generally left to the province. The officials tasked with fund-raising were the curatores viarum. They had a number of methods available to them. Private citizens with an interest in the road could be asked to contribute to its repair. High officials might distribute
A via connected two cities. Viae were generally centrally placed in the countryside.[clarification needed] The construction and care of the public roads, whether in Rome, in Italy, or in the provinces, was, at all periods of Roman history, considered to be a function of the greatest weight and importance. This is clearly shown by the fact that the censors, in some respects the most venerable of Roman magistrates, had the earliest paramount authority to construct and repair all roads and streets. Indeed, all the various functionaries, not excluding the emperors themselves, who succeeded the censors in this portion of their duties, may be said to have exercised a devolved censorial jurisdiction.[9]
Costs and civic responsibilities
The devolution to the censorial jurisdictions soon became a practical necessity, resulting from the growth of the Roman dominions and the diverse labors which detained the censors in the capital city. Certain ad hoc official bodies successively acted as constructing and repairing authorities. In Italy, the censorial responsibility passed to the commanders of the Roman armies, and later to special commissioners – and in some cases perhaps to the local magistrates. In the provinces, the consul or praetor and his legates received authority to deal directly with the contractor.[9]
The care of the streets and roads within the Roman territory was committed in the earliest times to the censors. They eventually made contracts for paving the street inside Rome, including the Clivus Capitolinus, with lava, and for laying down the roads outside the city with gravel. Sidewalks were also provided. The aediles, probably by virtue of their responsibility for the freedom of traffic and policing the streets, co-operated with the censors and the bodies that succeeded them.[9]
It would seem that in the reign of
Official bodies
The official bodies which first succeeded the censors in the care of the streets and roads were two in number. They were:[9]
- Quattuorviri viis in urbe purgandis, with jurisdiction inside the walls of Rome;
- Duoviri viis extra urbem purgandis, with jurisdiction outside the walls.
Both these bodies were probably of ancient origin, but the true year of their institution is unknown.
In case of an emergency in the condition of a particular road, men of influence and liberality were appointed, or voluntarily acted, as curatores or temporary commissioners to superintend the work of repair.[9] The dignity attached to such a curatorship is attested by a passage of Cicero. Among those who performed this duty in connection with particular roads was Julius Caesar, who became curator (67 BC) of the Via Appia, and spent his own money liberally upon it. Certain persons appear also to have acted alone and taken responsibility for certain roads.
In the country districts, as has been stated, the magistri pagorum had authority to maintain the viae vicinales.[9] In Rome itself each householder was legally responsible for the repairs to that portion of the street which passed his own house.[9] It was the duty of the aediles to enforce this responsibility. The portion of any street which passed a temple or public building was repaired by the aediles at the public expense. When a street passed between a public building or temple and a private house, the public treasury and the private owner shared the expense equally. No doubt[speculation?], if only to secure uniformity, the personal liability of householders to execute repairs of the streets was commuted for a paving rate payable to the public authorities who were responsible from time to time.
Changes under Augustus
The governing structure was changed by
Augustus, finding the collegia ineffective, especially the boards dealing with road maintenance, reduced the number of magistrates from 26 to 20. Completely abolishing the duoviri and later being granted the position as superintendent (according to Dio Cassius) of the road system connecting Rome to the rest of Italy and provinces beyond. In this capacity he had effectively given himself and any following Emperors a paramount authority which had originally belonged to the city censors. The quattuorviri board was kept as it was until at least the reign of Hadrian between 117 and 138 AD.[9] Furthermore, he appointed praetorians to the offices of "road-maker" and assigning each one with two lictors. Also making the office of curator of each of the great public roads a perpetual magistracy rather than a temporary commission.
The persons appointed under the new system were of
It was in the character of an imperial curator (though probably armed with extraordinary powers) that
Other curatores
Special curatores for a term seem to have been appointed on occasion, even after the institution of the permanent magistrates bearing that title.[9] The Emperors who succeeded Augustus exercised a vigilant control over the condition of the public highways. Their names occur frequently in the inscriptions to restorers of roads and bridges. Thus, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Trajan, and Septimius Severus were commemorated in this capacity at Emérita.[9] The Itinerary of Antoninus, which was probably a work of much earlier date, republished in an improved and enlarged form, under one of the Antonine emperors, remains as standing evidence of the minute care which was bestowed on the service of the public roads.
Construction and engineering
Practices and terminology
Roman road builders aimed at a regulation width (see Laws and traditions above), but actual widths have been measured at between 3.6 feet (1.1 metres) and more than 23 feet (7.0 metres). Today, the concrete has worn from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression of a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to produce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being flat. Many roads were built to resist rain, freezing and flooding. They were constructed to need as little repair as possible.
Roman construction took a directional straightness. Many long sections are ruler-straight, but it should not be thought that all of them were. Some links in the network were as long as 55 miles (89 km). Gradients of 10%–12% are known in ordinary terrain, 15%–20% in mountainous country. The Roman emphasis on constructing straight roads often resulted in steep slopes relatively impractical for most commercial traffic; over the years the Romans themselves realized this and built longer, but more manageable, alternatives to existing roads. Roman roads generally went straight up and down hills, rather than in a serpentine pattern of switchbacks.
As to the standard Imperial terminology that was used, the words were localized for different elements used in construction and varied from region to region. Also, in the course of time, the terms via munita and vía publica became identical.[9]
Materials and methods
Viae were distinguished not only according to their public or private character, but according to the materials employed and the methods followed in their construction. Ulpian divided them up in the following fashion:[9]
- Via terrena: A plain road of leveled earth.
- Via glareata:[14] An earthed road with a graveled surface.
- Via munita:[15] A regular built road, paved with rectangular blocks of the stone of the country, or with polygonal blocks of lava.
The Romans, though certainly inheriting some of the art of road construction from the
Via terrena
The Viae terrenae were plain roads of leveled earth. These were mere tracks worn down by the feet of humans and animals, and possibly by wheeled carriages.[16]
Via glareata
The Viae glareatae were earthed roads with a graveled surface or a gravel subsurface and paving on top. Livy speaks of the censors of his time as being the first to contract for paving the streets of Rome with flint stones, for laying gravel on the roads outside the city, and for forming raised footpaths at the sides.
Via munita
The best sources of information as regards the construction of a regulation via munita are:[9]
- The many existing remains of viae publicae. These are often sufficiently well preserved to show that the rules of construction were, as far as local material allowed, minutely adhered to in practice.
- The directions for making pavements given by Vitruvius. The pavement and the via munita were identical in construction, except as regards the top layer, or surface. This consisted, in the former case, of marble or mosaic, and, in the latter, of blocks of stone or lava.
- A passage in Statius describing the repairs of the Via Domitiana, a branch road of the Via Appia, leading to Neapolis.
After the
The
The method varied according to geographic locality, materials available and terrain, but the plan, or ideal at which the engineer aimed was always the same. The roadbed was layered. The road was constructed by filling the ditch. This was done by layering rock over other stones. Into the ditch was dumped large amounts of rubble, gravel and stone, whatever fill was available. Sometimes a layer of sand was put down, if it could be found. When it came to within 1 yd (1 m) or so of the surface it was covered with gravel and tamped down, a process called pavire, or pavimentare.
The flat surface was then the pavimentum. It could be used as the road, or additional layers could be constructed. A statumen or "foundation" of flat stones set in cement might support the additional layers. The final steps utilized lime-based concrete, which the Romans had discovered.[19] They seem to have mixed the mortar and the stones in the ditch. First a small layer of coarse concrete, the rudus, then a little layer of fine concrete, the nucleus, went onto the pavement or statumen. Into or onto the nucleus went a course of polygonal or square paving stones, called the summa crusta. The crusta was crowned for drainage.
An example is found in an early basalt road by the Temple of Saturn on the Clivus Capitolinus. It had travertine paving, polygonal basalt blocks, concrete bedding (substituted for the gravel), and a rain-water gutter.[20]
Obstacle crossings
Romans preferred to engineer solutions to obstacles rather than circumvent them. Outcroppings of stone, ravines, or hilly or mountainous terrain called for cuttings and tunnels. An example of this is found on the Roman road from
Bridges and causeways
Causeways were built over marshy ground. The road was first marked out with pilings. Between them were sunk large quantities of stone so as to raise the causeway to more than 5 feet (1.5 metres) above the marsh. In the provinces, the Romans often did not bother with a stone causeway, but used log roads (pontes longi).
Military and citizen utilization
The public road system of the Romans was thoroughly military in its aims and spirit.[9] It was designed to unite and consolidate the conquests of the Roman people, whether within or without the limits of Italy proper. A legion on the march brought its own baggage train (impedimenta) and constructed its own camp (castra) every evening at the side of the road.
Milestones and markers
Examples of Roman milestones | |
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|
The Romans had a preference for standardization wherever possible, so
Milestones permitted distances and locations to be known and recorded exactly. It was not long before historians began to refer to the milestone at which an event occurred.
Itinerary maps and charts
Combined topographical and road-maps may have existed as specialty items in some Roman libraries, but they were expensive, hard to copy and not in general use. Travelers wishing to plan a journey could consult an itinerarium, which in its most basic form was a simple list of cities and towns along a given road, and the distances between them.[22] It was only a short step from lists to a master list, or a schematic route-planner in which roads and their branches were represented more or less in parallel, as in the Tabula Peutingeriana. From this master list, parts could be copied and sold on the streets. The most thorough used different symbols for cities, way stations, water courses, and so on. The Roman government from time to time would produce a master road-itinerary. The first known were commissioned in 44 BC by Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Three Greek geographers, Zenodoxus, Theodotus and Polyclitus, were hired to survey the system and compile a master itinerary; the task required over 25 years and the resulting stone-engraved master itinerary was set up near the Pantheon. Travelers and itinerary sellers could make copies from it.
Vehicles and transportation
Outside the cities, Romans were avid riders and rode on or drove quite a number of vehicle types, some of which are mentioned here. Carts driven by oxen were used. Horse-drawn carts could travel up to 40 to 50 kilometres (25 to 31 mi) per day,[23] pedestrians 20 to 25 kilometres (12 to 16 mi). For purposes of description, Roman vehicles can be divided into the car, the coach, and the cart. Cars were used to transport one or two individuals, coaches were used to transport parties, and carts to transport cargo.
Of the cars, the most popular was the carrus, a standard
A more luxurious version, the carpentum, transported women and officials. It had an arched overhead covering of cloth and was drawn by mules. A lighter version, the cisium, equivalent to a gig, was open above and in front and had a seat. Drawn by one or two mules or horses, it was used for cab work, the cab drivers being called cisiani. The builder was a cisarius.
Of the coaches, the mainstay was the raeda or reda, which had four wheels. The high sides formed a sort of box in which seats were placed, with a notch on each side for entry. It carried several people with baggage up to the legal limit of 1000 Roman librae (pounds), modern equivalent 328 kilograms (723 pounds). It was drawn by teams of oxen, horses or mules. A cloth top could be put on for weather, in which case it resembled a covered wagon.
The raeda was probably the main vehicle for travel on the roads. Raedae meritoriae were hired coaches. The fiscalis raeda was a government coach. The driver and the builder were both referred to as a raedarius.
Of the carts, the main one was the plaustrum or plostrum. This was simply a platform of boards attached to wheels and a cross-tree. The wheels, or tympana, were solid and were several centimetres (inches) thick. The sides could be built up with boards or rails. A large wicker basket was sometimes placed on it. A two-wheel version existed along with the normal four-wheel type called the plaustrum maius.
The military used a standard wagon. Their transportation service was the cursus clabularis, after the standard wagon, called a carrus clabularius, clabularis, clavularis, or clabulare. It transported the impedimenta (baggage) of a military column.
Way stations and traveler inns
For non-military officials and people on official business who had no legion at their service, the government maintained way stations, or
Genteel travelers needed something better than cauponae. In the early days of the viae, when little unofficial provision existed, houses placed near the road were required by law to offer hospitality on demand. Frequented houses no doubt became the first tabernae, which were hostels, rather than the "taverns" we know today. As Rome grew, so did its tabernae, becoming more luxurious and acquiring good or bad reputations as the case might be. One of the best hotels was the Tabernae Caediciae at
A third system of way stations serviced vehicles and animals: the mutationes ("changing stations"). They were located every 20 to 30 kilometres (12 to 19 mi). In these complexes, the driver could purchase the services of wheelwrights, cartwrights, and equarii medici, or veterinarians. Using these stations in chariot relays, the emperor Tiberius hastened 296 kilometres (184 mi) in 24 hours to join his brother, Drusus Germanicus,[24][25] who was dying of gangrene as a result of a fall from a horse.
Post offices and services
Two postal services were available under the empire, one public and one private. The cursus publicus, founded by Augustus, carried the mail of officials by relay throughout the Roman road system. The vehicle for carrying mail was a cisium with a box, but for special delivery, a horse and rider was faster. On average, a relay of horses could carry a letter 80 kilometres (50 mi)[26] in a day. The postman wore a characteristic leather hat, the petanus. The postal service was a somewhat dangerous occupation, as postmen were a target for bandits and enemies of Rome. Private mail of the well-to-do was carried by tabellarii, an organization of slaves available for a price.
Locations
There are many examples of roads that still follow the route of Roman roads.
Italian areas
Major roads
- Via Aemilia, from Rimini (Ariminum) to Placentia
- Via Appia, the Appian way (312 BC), from Rome to Apulia
- Via Aurelia (241 BC), from Rome to France
- Via Cassia, from Rome to Tuscany
- Via Flaminia (220 BC), from Rome to Rimini (Ariminum)
- Via Raetia, from Verona north across the Brenner Pass
- Marches)
Others
- Via Aemilia in Hirpinis
- Via Aemilia Scauri (109 BC)
- Via Aquillia, branches off the Appia at Capua to the sea at Hipponium (Vibo Valentia)
- Via Brixiana, from Cremona to Brescia
- Via Claudia Julia Augusta(13 BC)
- Via Claudia Nova (47 AD)
- Via Clodia, from Rome to Tuscany forming a system with the Cassia
- Via Domitiana, coast road from Naples to Formia
- Via Flacca
- Via Flavia, from Trieste (Tergeste) to Dalmatia
- Via Gemina, from Aquileia and Trieste through the Karst to Materija, Obrov, Lipa and Klana, from where, near Rijeka, descending towards Trsat (Tersatica) to continue along the Dalmatian coast
- Via Herculia
- Via Julia Augusta (8 BC), exits Aquileia
- Via Labicana, southeast from Rome, forming a system with the Praenestina
- Via Latina, southeast from Rome to Casilinum where it joined the Via Appia.
- Ostia
- Via Postumia (148 BC), from Aquileia through Verona across the Apennines to Genoa
- Ariminum through the later Venetoregion
- Praeneste
- Via Schlavonia, from Aquileia across northern Istria to Senj and into Dalmatia
- Ostia
- Ocriculum
- Tibur
- Via Traiana Nova (Italy), from Lake Bolsena to the Via Cassia. Known by archaeology only
- Tibur to Aternum
- Via Valeria (Sicily) from Messina to Syracuse
Other areas
Africa
- Main road: from Sala Colonia to Carthage to Alexandria.
- In Egypt: Via Hadriana
- In Tingis southward (see: Roman roads in Morocco)
Albania / North Macedonia / Greece / Turkey
- Via Egnatia (146 BC) connecting Dyrrhachium (on Adriatic Sea) to Byzantium via Thessaloniki
Austria / Serbia / Bulgaria / Turkey
- Middle Europe and Byzantium
Bulgaria / Romania
Cyprus
- Via Kolossus. Connecting Paphos, the island Roman capital, with Salamis, the second bigger city and port.
France
In France, a Roman road is called voie romaine in vernacular language.
- Via Agrippa
- Via Aquitania, from Narbonne, where it connected to the Via Domitia, to the Atlantic Ocean across Toulouse and Bordeaux
- Via Domitia (118 BC), from Nîmes to the Pyrenees, where it joins to the Via Augusta at the Col de Panissars
- Roman road (Nord), extending from Dunkirk to Cassel in Nord Département
Germania Inferior (Germany, Belgium, Netherlands)
- Roman road from Trier to Cologne
- Via Belgica (Boulogne-Cologne)
- Lower Limes Germanicus
- Interconnections between Lower Limes Germanicus and Via Belgica
Middle East
Romania
- Trajan's bridge and Iron Gatesroad.
- Via Traiana: Porolissum Napoca Potaissa Apulum road.
- Via Pontica: Troesmis Piroboridava Caput Stenarum Apulum Partiscum Lugio
Spain and Portugal
- freeway.
- .
- Camiño de Oro, ending in Ourense, capital of the Province of Ourense, passing near the village of Reboledo.
- Bracara Augusta to Asturica Augusta
Syria
Trans-Alpine roads
These roads connected modern Italy and Germany:
- Via Claudia Augusta (47) from Altinum (now Quarto d'Altino) to Augsburg via the Reschen Pass
Trans-Pyrenean roads
Connecting
Turkey
- Roman road in Cilicia in south Turkey
- Roman Road of Ankara
United Kingdom
- Akeman Street
- Camlet Way
- Dere Street
- Ermine Street
- Fen Causeway
- Fosse Way
- King Street
- London-West of England Roman Roads
- Peddars Way
- Pye Road
- Roman road from Silchester to Bath
- Stane Street (Chichester)
- Stane Street (Colchester)
- Stanegate
- Via Devana
- Watling Street
See also
- Historic roads and trails
- Legacy of the Roman Empire
- Roman military engineering
- Ancient Roman technology
References
Footnotes
- ISBN 978-90-04-00622-5.
- ^ Kaszynski, William. The American Highway: The History and Culture of Roads in the United States. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000. Page 9
- ^ a b c Bailey, L. H., and Wilhelm Miller. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, Comprising Suggestions for Cultivation of Horticultural Plants, Descriptions of the Species of Fruits, Vegetables, Flowers, and Ornamental Plants Sold in the United States and Canada, Together with Geographical and Biographical Sketches. New York [etc.]: The Macmillan Co, 1900. Page 320.
- ^ Corbishley, Mike: "The Roman World", page 50. Warwick Press, 1986.
- ISBN 9781445649702.
- ^ Gabriel, Richard A. The Great Armies of Antiquity. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 2002. Page 9.
- ^ Michael Grant, History of Rome (New York: Charles Scribner, 1978), 264.
- ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, pp. 551–579 (552)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap Smith (1890).
- ^ Timothy Darvill, Oxford Archaeological Guides: England (2002) pp. 297–298
- ISBN 978-0-415-16616-4.
- ^ The ten men who judge lawsuits.
- ^ Subordinate officers under the aediles, whose duty it was to look after those streets of Rome which were outside the city walls.
- ^ also, glarea strata
- ^ also lapide quadrato strata or sílice strata
- ^ a b Great Britain, and Royal Engineers' Institute (Great Britain). Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers: Royal Engineer Institute, Occasional Papers. Chatham: Royal Engineer Institute, 1877. Page 57–92.
- ^ Graham, Alexander. Roman Africa; An Outline of the History of the Roman Occupation of North Africa, Based Chiefly Upon Inscriptions and Monumental Remains in That Country. London: Longmans, Green, and co, 1902. Page 66.
- ^ a b Ancient Roman Street re-emerges close to Colleferro. thinkarchaeology.net. October 10, 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-345-32029-2.
- ^ Middleton, J. H. The Remains of Ancient Rome. London: A. and C. Black, 1892. Page 251.
- ^ "De Ferranti - Glossary - Roman bridge". deferranti.com. Retrieved 2022-09-23.
- Journal of Roman Studies, (2000), pp. 181–195, p. 184.
- ^ Travel in the Ancient World, Lionel Casson, p. 189
- ^ Naturalis Historia by Gaius Plinius Secundus, Liber VII, 84.
- ^ The General History of the Highways by Nicolas Bergier, page 156.
- ^ C.W.J.Eliot, New Evidence for the Speed of the Roman Imperial Post. Phoenix 9, 2, 1955, 76ff.
- ^ The Archaeological Site of Histria, archweb.cimec.ro.
- ^ "RRRA Home". Romanroads.org. Retrieved 2022-03-18.
General information
- Laurence, Ray (1999). The roads of Roman Italy: mobility and cultural change. Routledge.
- Von Hagen, Victor W. (1967). The Roads That Led to Rome. The World Publishing Company, Cleveland and New York.
- Codrington, Thomas (1905). Roman Roads in Britain. London [etc.]: Society for promoting Christian knowledge.
- Forbes, Urquhart A., and Arnold C. Burmester (1904). Our Roman Highways. London: F.E. Robinson & co.
- Roby, Henry John (1902). Roman Private Law in the Times of Cicero and of the Antonines. Cambridge: C.U.P.
- Smith, William, William Wayte, and G. E. Marindin (1890). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: J. Murray. pp. 946–954.
- Smith, William (1858). A School Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities; Abridged from the Larger Dictionary by William Smith, with Corrections and Improvements by Charles Anthon. N.Y.: [s.n.]. pp. 354–355.
- Cresy, Edward (1847). An Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical. London: Printed for Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, Paternoster-Row.
Primary sources
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Further reading
- Adams, Colin. 2007. Land transport in Roman Egypt 30 BC–AD 300: A study in administration and economic history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
- Chevallier, Raymond. 1972. Les voies romaines. Paris: Colin.
- Coarelli, Filippo. 2007. Rome and environs: An archaeological guide. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
- Davies, Hugh, E. H. 1998. "Designing Roman roads." Britannia: Journal of Romano-British and Kindred Studies 29: 1–16.
- Erdkamp, Peter. Hunger and the Sword: Warfare and Food Supply in Roman Republican Wars (264–30 B.C.). Amsterdam: Gieben, 1998.
- Isaac, Benjamin. 1988. "The meaning of 'Limes' and 'Limitanei' in ancient sources." Journal of Roman Studies 78: 125–47.
- Laurence, Ray. 1999. The roads of Roman Italy. Mobility and cultural change. London: Routledge.
- Lewis, Michael J. T. 2001. Surveying instruments of Greece and Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
- MacDonald, William L. 1982–1986. The architecture of the Roman Empire. 2 vols. Yale Publications in the History of Art 17, 35. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
- Meijer, Fik J., and O. Van Nijf. 1992. Trade, transport and society in the ancient world: A sourcebook. London: Routledge.
- O’Connor, Colin. 1993. Roman bridges. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
- Pekáry, Thomas. 1968. Untersuchungen zu den römischen Reichsstraßen. Bonn: Habelt.
- Quilici, Lorenzo. 2008. "Land transport, Part 1: Roads and bridges." In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 551–79. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
- Rathmann, Michael. 2003. Untersuchungen zu den Reichsstraßen in den westlichen Provinzen des Imperium Romanum. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern.
- Talbert, Richard J. A., et al. 2000. Barrington atlas of the Greek and Roman world. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
- Wiseman, T. P. 1970. "Roman Republican road-building." Papers of the British School at Rome 38: 122–52.
External links
- Maps
- General articles
- Road descriptions
- Roman law regarding public and private domain
- Road construction