Roman von Ungern-Sternberg

Nikolai Robert Maximilian Freiherr von Ungern-Sternberg was born in

In 1888 his family moved to Reval (Tallinn), the capital of the Governorate of Estonia in the Russian Empire, where his parents divorced in 1891. In 1894 his mother married the Baltic-German nobleman Oskar Anselm Hermann Freiherr von Hoyningen-Huene.^[5] Ungern-Sternberg grew up in the Governorate, with his home being the Hoyningen-Huene estate at Jerwakant (modern Järvakandi, Estonia), deep in the forests, about 65 kilometres (40 miles) from Reval.^[6] In the summer, Ungern-Sternberg lived on the Baltic island of Dagö (now Hiiumaa), which he liked to boast had belonged to his family for over 200 years.^[7]

As a boy, Ungern-Sternberg was noted for being such a ferocious bully that even the other bullies feared him and several parents forbade their children from playing with him as he was a "terror".

In 1898, his father was briefly imprisoned for fraud; a year later he was committed to the local insane asylum.[11] From 1900 to 1902 Ungern attended the Nicholas I Gymnasium in Reval. His school records show an unruly, bad-tempered young man who was constantly in trouble with his teachers because of frequent fights with other cadets and breaking other school rules: smoking in bed, growing long hair, leaving without permission, etc., which finally led the schoolmaster to write his stepfather and mother in February 1905 asking them to withdraw him from the school or he would be expelled.^[12] They chose the former, and Ungern joined the fighting in eastern Russia during the Russo-Japanese War. It is unclear whether he saw action against the Japanese or if all military operations had ceased before his arrival in Manchuria,^[13] although he was awarded the Russo-Japanese War Medal in 1913.^[14]

During the 1905 Russian Revolution, Estonian peasants went on a bloody jacquerie against the Baltic-German nobility, who owned most of the land. Aristocrats were lynched and their estates burned down,^[15] among them the one at Jerwakant where Ungern-Sternberg had grown up. These events were traumatic for Ungern-Sternberg, confirming his belief that the Estonian peasants who worked on his family's lands were all "rough, untutored, wild and constantly angry, hating everybody and everything without understanding why".^[16]

In 1906, Ungern was transferred to the Pavlovsk Military School, in St. Petersburg, as a cadet of ordinary rank.

After graduating, he specifically asked to be stationed with a Cossack regiment in Asia, to learn more about Asian culture. His request was granted, and he served as an officer in eastern Siberia in the 1st Argunsky and then in the 1st Amursky Cossack regiments, where he became enthralled with the lifestyle of nomadic peoples, such as the Mongols and Buryats.^[22]

Ungern-Sternberg was notorious for his heavy drinking and exceptionally cantankerous moods. In one such brawl, his face was scarred when the officer that he fought struck him with his sword.^[11] It was also rumored that brain damage from the injury had affected his sanity.^[23] However, a special study found that Ungern-Sternberg was sane, although the wound affected his irritability.^[24]

In 1913, at his request, he transferred to the reserves. Ungern moved to Outer Mongolia to assist the Mongols in their struggle for independence from China, but Russian officials prevented him from fighting on the side of Mongolian troops. He arrived in the town of Khovd, in western Mongolia, and served as an out-of-staff officer in the Cossack guard detachment at the Russian consulate.^[25]

First World War

On 19 July 1914, Ungern joined frontline forces as part of the second-turn 34th Regiment of Cossack troops stationed on the

After the White troops defeated the Reds on a section of the FER line in Russia, Semyonov appointed Ungern commandant of troops stationed in Dauria, a railway station in a strategic position east-southeast of Lake Baikal. Semyonov and Ungern, though fervently anti-Bolshevik, were not typical of the figures to be found in the leadership of the White movement, as their plans differed from those of the main White leaders. Semyonov refused to recognize the authority of Admiral Alexander Kolchak, the nominal leader of the Whites in Siberia. Instead, he acted independently and was supported by the Japanese with arms and money.

For White leaders like Kolchak and

Because of his successful military operations in Hailar and Dauria, Ungern received the rank of major-general. Semyonov entrusted him with forming military units to battle Bolshevik forces. They enrolled Buryats and Mongols in their national military units.

During this time, Semyonov and Ungern grew personally distant although neither admitted it publicly. Ungern, whose interest in Buddhism had led him to follow an increasingly ascetic personal lifestyle, was disgusted by his mentor's corruption and debauchery. In particular, the virulently antisemitic Ungern was so outraged by Semyonov's public affair with a Jewish cabaret singer that he named one of his horses after her. Semyonov was also uninterested in ensuring that his subordinates followed his orders. Combined with Ungern's tendency to act on his own, this greatly impaired their combined military effectiveness.^[37]

In Dauria, Ungern formed the volunteer Asiatic Cavalry Division (ACD), creating a fortress where he launched attacks on Red forces. Under his rule, Dauria became a well-known "torture centre" filled with the bones of dozens of Ungern's victims, who were executed as Reds or thieves (details in ^[38]). Ungern's chief executioner had been a Colonel Laurentz, but in Mongolia, Ungern had him executed because he lost Ungern's trust under unclear circumstances.^[39]

Like many other White units, Ungern's troops used "requisitions" of freight on Manchuria-bound trains passing through Dauria, as supplies. Their confiscations did not significantly diminish the supplies of Kolchak's forces, but private Russian and Chinese merchants lost considerable property.^[40]

In 1919, taking advantage of the instability in Russia, the Chinese government, established by members of the

After the fall of Anhui party rule in China, Chinese soldiers in Mongolia found themselves effectively abandoned. They rebelled against their commanders, plundering and killing Mongols and foreigners.[44]^{[page needed]} Some of the Chinese troops during the occupation were Tsahar (Chahar) Mongols from Inner Mongolia, a major cause of animosity between Outer Mongols (Khalkhas) and Inner Mongols.^[45]

As part of his plans, Ungern travelled to Manchuria and China between February and September 1919, establishing contacts with monarchist circles and making preparations for Semyonov to meet the Manchurian warlord Marshal Zhang Zuolin, the "Old Marshal". In July 1919, Ungern married the Manchurian princess Ji, who was just 19, in an Orthodox ceremony in Harbin. The princess was given the name Elena Pavlovna; she and Ungern communicated in English, their only common language.^[46] The marriage had a political aim, as Ji was a relative of General Zhang Kuiwu, the commander of Chinese troops at the western end of the Chinese-Manchurian Railway and the governor of Hailar.^[35]

Restoration of Outer Mongolian independence

After Kolchak's defeat by the Reds and Japan's subsequent decision to withdraw its expeditionary troops from the

On 26–27 October and again on 2–4 November 1920, Ungern's troops assaulted Urga but suffered disastrous losses. After the defeat, his forces retreated to the upper currents of the Kherlen River, in Setsen-Khan Aimag, a district ruled by princes with the title Setsen Khan, in eastern Outer Mongolia. He was supported by Mongols who sought independence from Chinese occupation, especially the spiritual and secular leader of Mongols, the Bogd Khan, who secretly sent Ungern his blessing for expelling Chinese from Mongolia.

Ungern's devotion to harsh discipline remained unabated. After learning that a lieutenant he had initially favored and put in command of the medical division had, during the retreat, sexually assaulted the nurses (many of whom were married to other officers), looted settlements the unit passed through and ordered all the wounded fatally poisoned because they were "a nuisance", Ungern ordered the man flogged and then

The Chinese had tightened their control of Outer Mongolia by then by strictly regulating Buddhist services in monasteries and imprisoning Russians and Mongols, whom they considered "separatists". According to the memoirs of M. G. Tornovsky, the ACD numbered 1,460 men, while the Chinese garrison was 7,000 strong. The Chinese had the advantage in artillery and machine guns and had built a network of trenches in and around Urga.[48]^{[page needed]}

Ungern's troops began moving from their camp to Urga on 31 January. On 2 February, they battled for control of Chinese front lines and secured parts of Urga.

The following day, he gave his soldiers a respite. Borrowing a tactic from Genghis Khan, he ordered his troops to light a large number of campfires in the hills surrounding Urga and to use them as reference points for Rezukhin's detachment. That made the town appear to be surrounded by an overwhelming force.^{[44][page needed]}

Early on 4 February, Ungern launched an assault on the Chinese White barracks from the east, captured them and divided his forces into two parts. The first launched a major assault on the remaining Chinese positions in the Chinese trade settlement (Chinese: 買賣城, Maimaicheng, "buy-sell-city"). The second moved westwards towards the Consular Settlement. Upon reaching the Maimaicheng, Ungern had his men smash their way in by blasting the gates with explosives and improvised battering rams.^[51] After breaking in, a general slaughter set in, as both sides fought with sabres.

After the capture of Maimacheng, Ungern joined his troops attacking Chinese troops at the Consular Settlement. After a Chinese counterattack, Ungern's soldiers retreated a short distance northeast and then launched another attack with the support of another Cossack and Mongolian detachment, which began an attack from the northeast and northwest. Ungern's troops gradually moved westwards in Urga, pursuing retreating Chinese soldiers.

The capital city was finally taken on the evening of 4 February. Chinese civilian administrators and military commanders abandoned their soldiers and fled northwards from Urga in 11 cars in the night of 3–4 February. Chinese troops fled northward on 4 and 5 February. They massacred any Mongolian civilians they encountered along the road from Urga to the Russian border.

Russian settlers who supported the Reds moved from Urga, together with the fleeing Chinese troops. During the capture of Urga, the Chinese lost about 1500 men, and Ungern's forces suffered about 60 casualties.^[52]

After the battle, Ungern's troops, initially welcomed as liberators by a populace tired of living under Chinese rule, began plundering Chinese stores and killing Russian Jews who were living in Urga, as the Cossacks had also been set against the Jews. Ungern himself ordered the Jews to be killed except for those who had notes from him sparing their lives. It has been estimated by surviving archival documents and memoirs that 43–50 Jews were killed during Ungern's stay in Mongolia, about 5–6% of all those executed under his orders. This pogrom effectively eliminated Urga's entire Jewish community at the time.^[53]

Several days later, Ungern stopped the looting, but his secret police bureau, led by Colonel Leonid Sipailov, who had already developed a reputation for serious brutality under Ungern in Russia, continued searching for "Reds".^[54] Between 11 and 13 March, Ungern captured a fortified Chinese base at Choir, between the Otsol Uul and Choiryn Bogd Uul Mountains, south of Urga. Ungern had 900 troops and the Chinese defenders about 1500. After capturing Choir, Ungern returned to Urga. His detachments, consisting of Cossacks and Mongols, moved southward to Zamyn-Üüd, a frontier settlement and another Chinese base. The defending Chinese soldiers abandoned Zamyn-Üüd without a fight.^{[48][page needed][55]}

When the remaining Chinese troops, having retreated to northern Mongolia near Kyakhta, attempted to go around Urga to the west to reach China, the Russians and the Mongols feared that they were attempting to recapture Urga. Several hundred Cossack and Mongol troops were dispatched to stop the several thousand Chinese in the area of Talyn Ulaankhad Hill near the Urga–Uliastai road in central Mongolia. After a battle that raged from 30 March to 2 April in which more than a thousand Chinese and approximately 100 Mongols, Russians and Buryats were killed, the Chinese were routed and chased to the southern border of the country. Thus Chinese forces left Outer Mongolia.^[56][57]

Mongolia and Ungern (February to August 1921)

Ungern, Mongolian lamas and princes brought the Bogd Khan from Manjusri Monastery to Urga on 21 February 1921. On 22 February, a solemn ceremony took place to restore the Bogd Khan to the throne.^[58][59] As a reward for ousting the Chinese from Urga, the Bogd Khan granted Ungern the high hereditary title darkhan khoshoi chin wang in the degree of khan, and other privileges. Other officers, lamas and princes who had participated in these events also received high titles and awards.^[60][61] For seizing Urga, Ungern received from Semyonov the rank of lieutenant-general.^{[citation needed]}

On 22 February 1921, Mongolia was proclaimed an independent monarchy. Supreme power over Mongolia belonged to the Bogd Khan, or the 8th Bogd Gegen Jebtsundamba Khutuktu.^{[21][page needed]} According to some eyewitnesses (such as his engineer and officer Kamil Giżycki, and Polish adventurer and writer Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski), Ungern was the first to institute order in Urga by imposing street cleaning and sanitation, promoting religious life and tolerance in the capital and attempting to reform the economy.^{[citation needed]}

Ossendowski had served as an official in Kolchak's government and, after its collapse, fled to Mongolia.

A similar novel, Asian Odyssey, written by Dmitri Alioshin who was a soldier in Ungern's forces, describes the millenarist beliefs common among Ungern's supporters:^[65]

The whole world is rotten. Greed, hatred and cruelty are in the saddle. We intend to organize a new empire; a new civilization. It will be called the Middle Asiatic Buddhist Empire, carved out of Mongolia, Manchuria and Eastern Siberia. Communication has already been established for that purpose with Djan-Zo-Lin, the war lord of Manchuria, and with Hutukhta, the Living Buddha of Mongolia. Here in these historic plains we will organize an army as powerful as that of Genghis Khan. Then we will move, as that great man did, and smash the whole of Europe. The world must die so that a new and better world may come forth, reincarnated on a higher plane.

Hutukhta did not share Ungern's enthusiasm for re-establishing monarchy across the continent, knowing that his small army would likely be vanquished by the Soviets or Chinese long before any of these ambitions could be realized. In April 1921 he wrote to Beijing distancing Outer Mongolia from Ungern's vision and asking if the Chinese government would be interested in resuming the dominant relationship it had had under the former emperors. Ungern thus began seeking other sources of support. Japan, believed by the Soviets to be supporting Ungern extensively, instead doubted the capability of the ACD and considered the mercurial Ungern harder to work with than Semyonov had been. The Chinese warlords Ungern reached out to also rejected his plans, even Zhang Zuolin, then in control of most of Manchuria, to whom Ungern offered the throne of a hypothetical empire that would stretch to Central Asia.^[66]

Ungern did not interfere in Mongolian affairs and assisted Mongols only in some issues according to orders of the Bogd Khan. Russian colonists, on the other hand, suffered cruelties from Ungern's secret police bureau led by Sipailov. A list of people known to have been killed on Ungern's orders or by others on their pretext, both in Russia and Mongolia, confirms the deaths of 846 people, approximately 100–120 from Urga, about 3–8% of the total foreign colony population. Ungern's unrelenting harshness contributed to discontent that later erupted in mutiny among his troops.^[67][68]

Some eyewitnesses considered his Asiatic Cavalry Division as a base for a future Mongolian national army. The division consisted of national detachments, such as the Chinese regiment, Japanese unit, various Cossack regiments, Mongol, Buryat, Tatar and other peoples' units. Ungern said that 16 nationalities served in his division.

Dozens of

The presence of the Japanese unit in the division is often explained as evidence that Japan stood behind Ungern in his actions in Mongolia. Studies of their interrogations from Japanese archives revealed that they were mercenaries serving on their own, like other nationals in the division, and that Ungern was not managed by Japan.[69]

The Bolsheviks started infiltrating Mongolia shortly after the October Revolution, long before they took control of the Russian Transbaikal. In 1921, various

Chinese forces slaughtered most of a 350 strong White Russian forces in June 1921 under Colonel Kazagrandi in the Gobi desert, with only two batches of 42 men and 35 men surrendering separately as Chinese were wiping out White Russian remnants following the Soviet Red army defeat of Ungern Sternberg, and other Buryat and White Russian remnants of Ungern-Sternberg's army were massacred by Soviet Red Army and Mongol forces in the same summer, in Uliastai Mongols beat Colonel Vangdabov's Buryats to death with clubs for being loyal to Ungern-Sternberg.[72]

Although they had captured Urga, the Red forces failed to defeat the main forces of the Asiatic Division (Ungern's and Rezukhin's brigades). Ungern regrouped and attempted to invade Transbaikal, across the Russo-Mongolian border. To rally his soldiers and local people, he quoted an agreement with Semyonov and pointed to a supposed Japanese offensive that was to support their drive, but neither Semyonov nor the Japanese were eager to assist him.

After several days of rest, the Asiatic Division started its raid into Soviet territory on 18 July. The eyewitnesses Kamil Giżycki and Mikhail Tornovsky gave similar estimates of their numbers: about 3000 men in total.^{[73][page needed]} Ungern's troops penetrated deep into Russian territory.

The Soviets declared martial law in areas where the Whites were expected, including Verkhneudinsk (now Ulan-Ude, the capital of Buryatia). Ungern's troops captured many settlements, the northernmost being Novoselenginsk, which they occupied on 1 August. By then, Ungern had understood that his offensive was ill-prepared, and he had heard about the approach of large Red forces. On 2 August 1921, he began his retreat to Mongolia, where he declared his determination to fight communism.

While Ungern's troops wanted to abandon the war effort, head towards Manchuria and join with other Russian émigrés, it soon became clear that Ungern had other ideas. He wanted to retreat to Tuva and then to Tibet. Troops under both Ungern and Rezukhin effectively mutinied and hatched plots to kill their respective commanders.

On 17 August, Rezukhin was murdered. A day later, conspirators attempted to assassinate Ungern. Ungern managed to evade the conspirators twice and retreated to a detachment made up exclusively of local Mongol soldiers. They did not want to take on the mutineers, nor side with Ungern and did not want to kill Ungern himself. They left him immobilized and fled.

When the news on the Baron's execution reached the Living Buddha the Bogd Khan, he ordered services to be held in temples throughout Mongolia.^[77]

Legacy

Geopolitical impact

In 2022, John Jennings, a history professor at the

• Ungern-Sternberg is the main villain in the video game Iron Storm.^[81]
• In Star Trek's The Eugenics Wars: The Rise and Fall of Khan Noonien Singh, the antagonist is also called "Khan." Ungern-Sternberg likely served as an inspiration to the character.
• In 1938, Ungern-Sternberg was the protagonist of a novel published in Germany, Ich befehle! Kampf und Tragödie des Barons Ungern-Sternberg (I Order! The Struggle and Tragedy of Baron Ungern-Sternberg) by Berndt Krauthoff, which often glossed over his more brutal tactics in order to paint him in the best light.^[82]
• "Ungern-Sternberg" is a song by the French punk rock group Paris Violence, which contains the lyrics "Ungern-Sternberg, chevalier romantique / Tu attends la mort comme un amant sa promise" ("Ungern-Sternberg, romantic knight / You wait for death like a lover [waits] for his fiancée").^[83]
• Ungern-Sternberg is often mentioned in the novels of the Spanish thriller writer Arturo Pérez-Reverte.^[81]
• Ungern-Sternberg is featured in the graphic novel Corte Sconta detta Arcana by the Italian writer Hugo Pratt.^[81]
• The novels of the Russian surrealist writer Victor Pelevin often feature Ungern-Sternberg, most notably his 1996 novel Chapayev and Void.^[81]
• Ungern-Sternberg is a background character in Charles Stross's novel
  The Fuller Memorandum^{[citation needed}
  ]

• Timeline of Mongolian history
• Amur Front
• Ignaz Trebitsch-Lincoln

Works cited

References

Citations

1. ^ Kuzmin 2011, p. ^{[page needed]}.
2. ^ Palmer 2008, pp. 16–17.
3. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 18.
4. ^
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5. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 22–23.
6. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 17.
7. ^ ^{a b c} Palmer 2008, p. 19.
8. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 24.
9. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 16.
10. ^ Kuzmin 2011, p. 392.
11. ^ ^{a b} Smith 1980, p. 591.
12. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 20.
13. ^ Tornovsky 2004a, p. 190.
14. ^ Kuzmin 2013, p. 178.
15. ^ Palmer 2008, pp. 24–25.
16. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 25.
17. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 27–30.
18. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 26.
19. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 28.
20. ^ Kuzmin_S_L_Mitruev_B_L_2023_Baron_R_F_von_Ungern_Sternberg_as_the_God_of_War_historical_and_religious_grounds_ Kuzmin, S.L. and Mitruev, B.L. Baron R. F. von Ungern-Sternberg as the God of War: historical and religious grounds. – Oriental Courier. 2023, no 3, pp. 96–111.
21. ^ ^{a b c d e} Kuzmin 2011.
22. ^ Palmer 2008, pp. 32–33.
23. ^ Palmer 2008, pp. 39–40.
24. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 368–369.
25. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 61–63.
26. ^ Khoroshilova, O. Voiskovye Partizany Velikoi Voiny. St. Petersburg: Evropeiskii Dom Publ.
27. ^ Smith 1980, p. 592.
28. ^ ^{a b} Kuzmin 2011, pp. 67–70.
29. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 75.
30. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 79.
31. ^ Palmer 2008, pp. 77–78.
32. ^ Ataman Semenov. O sebe. Vospominaniya, Mysli i Vyvody. Moscow: AST Publ., 2002
33. ^ Palmer 2008, pp. 78–81.
34. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 76–78.
35. ^ ^{a b} Kuzmin 2011, pp. 94–96.
36. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 87.
37. ^ Jennings 2022, p. 39–40.
38. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 102–103.
39. ^ Kuzmin 2011, p. 370.
40. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 91–92.
41. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 141–143.
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43. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 120–55.
44. ^ ^{a b} Pershin 1999.
45. ISBN 978-0198233572. Archived
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46. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 110.
47. ^ Jennings 2022, p. 40.
48. ^ ^{a b c d} Tornovsky 2004a.
49. ^ Jennings 2022, p. 43.
50. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 176–178, 339–341.
51. ^ Palmer, James The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia, New York: Basic Books, 2009, p. 154.
52. ^ Kuzmin 2011, p. 179.
53. ^ Jennings 2022, p. 44.
54. ^ Kuzmin 2011, p. 417.
55. ^ Kuzmin 2011, p. 187.
56. ^ (in Russian) Kuzmin, S. L., Oyuunchimeg, J. and Bayar, B. The battle at Ulaankhad, one of the main events in the fight for independence of Mongolia Archived 21 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Studia Historica Instituti Historiae Academiae Scientiarum Mongoli, 2011–12, vol. 41–42, no 14, pp. 182–217
57. ^ (in Russian) Kuzmin, S.L., Oyuunchimeg, J. and Bayar, B. The Ulaan Khad: reconstruction of a forgotten battle for independence of Mongolia Archived 21 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Rossiya i Mongoliya: Novyi Vzglyad na Istoriyu (Diplomatiya, Ekonomika, Kultura), 2015, vol. 4. Irkutsk, pp. 103–14.
58. ^ Knyazev, N. N. "The Legendary Baron". In Kuzmin (2004a), pp. 67–69.
59. ^ Tornovsky 2004a, pp. 231–233.
60. ^ . "Facsimile of the original and translations of the Bogd Khan edict". In Kuzmin (2004b), pp. 90–92. harvc: no authors in contributor list. (help)
61. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 433–436.
62. ^ Palmer 2008, pp. 182–183.
63. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 184.
64. ^ (in Russian) Kuzmin, S. L. and Rejt, L. J. Notes by F. A. Ossendowski as a source on the history of Mongolia Archived 21 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine in Vostok (Oriens) (Moscow), 2008. no 5, pp. 97–110
65. ^ * Alioshin, Dmitri. Asian Odyssey. Tikhanov Library, 2023. "Asian Odyssey"
66. ^ Jennings 2022, p. 45–46.
67. ^ Makeev, A.S. (1934). God of War. Shanghai: Publishers AP Malyk and VP Kampina Ltd.
68. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 406–418.
69. ^ (in Russian) Kuzmin S.L., Batsaikhan, O., Nunami, K. and Tachibana, M. 2009. Baron Ungern and Japan Archived 21 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, in Vostok (Oriens) (Moscow), no 5, pp. 115–133
70. ISBN 978-1788316958
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71. ^ ^{a b} Jennings 2022, p. 47.
72. ISBN 1135765960
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73. ^ Kuzmin 2004b.
74. ^ Makeev, A.S. (1934). God of War. Shanghai: Publishers AP Malyk and VP Kampina Ltd.
75. ^ Kuzmin 2011, pp. 228–372.
76. ^ Kuzmin 2011, p. 302.
77. ^ Alioshin, Dmitri (1941). Asian Odyssey. London: Cassell and Co., Ltd. pp. 268–269.
78. ^ Jennings 2022, p. 50.
79. ^ "Coalition grants €45,000 for memorial to Baltic German war crimes baron". ERR. 1 December 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
80. ^ "Baltic German alleged war criminal memorial planners forgo state support". ERR. 2 December 2020. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
81. ^ ^{a b c d} Palmer 2008, p. 244.
82. ^ Palmer 2008, p. 243.
83. ^ Stuttaford, Andrew (6 July 2009). "The Heart of Darkness". AndrewStuttaford.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2016.

Sources

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  • Tornovsky, M. G. "Events in Mongolia-Khalkha in 1920–1921". In Kuzmin (2004a).
• Kuzmin, Sergei L., ed. (2004b). Baron Ungern v Dokumentakh i Memuarakh (in Russian). Moscow: KMK Sci. Press.
  ISBN 978-5-87317-164-4
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• Kuzmin, Sergei L. (2011). The History of Baron Ungern. An Experience of Reconstruction. Moscow: KMK Sci. Press.
  ISBN 978-5-87317-692-2
  .
• Kuzmin, Sergei L. (2013). "How bloody was the White Baron?". Inner Asia. 15 (1).
• Palmer, James (2008). The Bloody White Baron: The Extraordinary Story of the Russian Nobleman Who Became the Last Khan of Mongolia. New York:
  ISBN 9780571230242
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• Pershin, D. P. (1999). Baron Ungern, Urga i Altanbulak (in Russian). Samara: Agni.
  ISBN 978-5898500030
  .
• Smith, Canfield F. (1980). "The Ungernovščina – How and Why?". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. 28 (4): 590–595.
  JSTOR 41046201
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• Sunderland, Willard (2014). The Baron's Cloak: A History of the Russian Empire in War and Revolution.
  ISBN 978-0-8014-5270-3
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roman Ungern.

• Willard Sunderland, The Baron’s Cloak, A History of the Russian Empire in War and Revolution review by Nikolaus Katzer
• Hughes, Kathryn. Review: The Bloody White Baron by James Palmer, The Guardian, 14 June 2008.
• Goodwin, Jason. Book Review 'The Bloody White Baron,' by James Palmer
• Willard Sunderland on New Books Network (audio here) discussing his book, The Baron's Cloak: A History of the Russian Empire in War and Revolution (
  ISBN 978-0-8014-5270-3
  )