Gitanos
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Calé, Gitanos | |
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Total population | |
Estimated 720,000-1,500,000 Roman Catholicism, Evangelicalism | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Other Romani people |
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Romani people |
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The Romani in Spain, generally known by the endonym Calé,[6] or the exonym gitanos (Spanish pronunciation: [xiˈtanos]), belong to the Iberian Romani subgroup known as Calé, with smaller populations in Portugal (known as ciganos) and in Southern France. Their sense of identity and cohesion stems from their shared value system, expressed among gitanos as las leyes gitanas ('Gypsy laws').[7][8]
Traditionally, they maintain their social circles strictly within their patrigroups, as interaction between patrigroups increases the risk of feuding, which may result in fatalities.[9] The emergence of Pentecostalism has impacted this practice, as the lifestyle of Pentecostal gitanos involves frequent contact with Calé people from outside their own patrigroups during church services and meetings. Data on ethnicity are not collected in Spain, although the public pollster CIS estimated in 2007 that the number of Calé present in Spain is probably around one million.[1]
Name
The term gitano evolved from the word egiptano[10] ("Egyptian"), which was the Old Spanish demonym for someone from Egipto (Egypt). "Egiptano" was the regular adjective in Old Spanish for someone from Egypt, however, in Middle and Modern Spanish the irregular adjective egipcio supplanted egiptano to mean Egyptian, probably to differentiate Egyptians from Gypsies. Meanwhile, the term egiptano evolved through elision into egitano and finally into gitano, losing the meaning of Egyptian and carrying with it a specific meaning of Romanis in Spain. The two peoples are now unambiguously differentiated in modern Spanish, "egipcios" for Egyptians and "gitanos" for Roma in Spain, with "egiptano" being obsolete for either.
Though etymologically the term gitano originally meant "Egyptian",
Identity
The group's identity is particularly complex in Spain for a variety of reasons that are examined below. Nevertheless, it can be safely said that both from the perspective of gitano and non-gitano (payo) Spaniards, individuals generally considered to belong to this ethnicity are those of full or near-full gitano descent and who also self-identify as such. A confusing element is the thorough hybridization of Andalusian and Roma culture (and some would say identity) at a popular level. This has occurred to the point where Spaniards from other regions of Spain commonly mistake elements of one for the other. The clearest example of this is flamenco music and Sevillanas, art forms that are Andalusian rather than gitano in origin but, having been strongly marked by gitanos in interpretative style, are now commonly associated with this ethnicity by many Spaniards. The fact that the largest population of gitanos is concentrated in Southern Spain[12] has even led to a confusion between gitano accents and those more typical of Southern Spain even though many Kale populations in the northern half of Spain (such as Galicia) do not speak Andalusian Spanish.[13]
Origin
The Romani people originate from northwestern Hindustan,[14][15][16][17][18][19] presumably from the northwestern Indian state of Rajasthan[18][19] and the Punjab region shared between India and Pakistan.[18]
The linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that the roots of the Romani language lie in the Indian subcontinent: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indic languages and shares with them a big part of the basic lexicon, for example, body parts, daily routines[20] and numerals.
More exactly, Romani shares the basic lexicon with
Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent and migrated as a group.[15][16][22] According to a genetic study in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of
Migration to Spain
How and when the Romani arrived in the Iberian Peninsula from Northern India is a question whose consensus is far from being reached. A popular theory, although without any documentation, claims they came from North Africa, from where they would have crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to meet again in France with the northern migratory route.[24] Thus, gitanos would be a deformation of Latin Tingitani, that is, from Tingis, today Tangier. Another, more consistent theory, and well documented, is that they entered the Iberian Peninsula from France. Although there is controversy over the date of the first arrival, since there is evidence of a safe conduct granted in Perpignan in 1415 by the infante Alfonso of Aragon to one Tomás, son of Bartolomé de Sanno, who is said to be "Indie Majoris".[25] Or instead, it could be the so-called Juan de Egipto Menor, who entered through France, when in 1425 Alfonso V granted him a letter of insurance; he is mostly accepted as the first Romani person to reach the peninsula.[26]
... As our beloved and devoted Don Juan de Egipto Menor ... understands that he must pass through some parts of our kingdoms and lands, and we want him to be well treated and welcomed ... under pain of our wrath and indignation ... the mentioned Don Juan de Egipto and those who will go with him and accompany him, with all their horses, clothes, goods, gold, silver, saddlebags and whatever else they bring with them, let them go, stay and go through any city, town, place and other parts of our lordship safe and secure ... and giving those safe passage and being driven when the aforementioned don Juan requires it through this present safe conduct ... Delivered in Zaragoza with our seal on January 12 of the year of birth of our Lord 1425. King Alfonso.
In 1435 they were seen in Santiago de Compostela. Gitanos were recorded in Barcelona and Zaragoza by 1447,[27] and in 1462 they were received with honors in Jaén. Years later, to the gitanos, the grecianos, pilgrims who penetrated the Mediterranean shore in the 1480s, were added to them, probably because of the fall of Constantinople. Both of them continued to wander throughout the peninsula, being well received at least until 1493, year in which a group of gitanos arrived at Madrid, where the Council agreed to "... give alms to the gitanos because at the request of the City passed ahead, ten reales, to avoid the damages that could be done by three hundred people who came ... ".
In those years safe conducts were granted to supposedly noble Calé pilgrims. The follow-up of these safe-conducts throughout Spain has provided some data to historians according to Teresa San Román:
- The number of Romani that entered or inhabited the Peninsula in the 15th-century is estimated at 3,000 individuals.
- The Roma traveled in variable groups, of 80-150 people, led by a man.
- Each autonomous group maintained relations at a distance with one of the others, there being perhaps relations of kinship among them (something common today among Spanish Romani).
- The separation between each group was variable and sometimes some followed the others at close range and by the same routes.
- The most common survival strategy was to present as Christian pilgrims to seek the protection of a noble.
- The way of life was nomadic and dedicated to divination and performance (spectacle).
In 1492, the Roma auxiliaries helped the army of the
Gitanos have a low and little politically committed role, with some particular exceptions; Andalusian nationalism and identity is strongly based on a belief in the oriental basis of Andalusi heritage, which acted as a bridge between occidental-western and oriental-eastern Andalusian culture at a popular level. The father of such a movement,
For about 300 years, Romanies were subject to a number of laws and policies designed to eliminate them from Spain as an identifiable group. Romani settlements were broken up and the residents dispersed; sometimes, Romanies were required to marry non-Roma; they were prohibited from using their language and rituals, and were excluded from public office and from guild membership.[30] In 1749, a major effort to get rid of the Calé population in Spain was carried out through a raid organized by the government.[31]
During the Spanish Civil War, gitanos were not persecuted for their ethnicity by either side.[32] Under the regime of Francisco Franco, gitanos were often harassed or simply ignored, although their children were educated, sometimes forcibly, much as all Spaniards are nowadays.[33]
In the post-Franco era, Spanish government policy has been much more sympathetic, especially in the area of social welfare and social services.[30] In 1977, the last anti-Romani laws were repealed, an action promoted by Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia, the first Romani deputy.[30]
Beginning in 1983, the government operated a special program of
Language
Historically, gitanos spoke Caló, also known as Romanés, fluently, often alongside the language spoken in the region they inhabited. Caló is a type of para-Romani, combining the phonology and grammar of the Catalan or Castilian, with a lexicon derived from Romani. The para-Romani resulting from the combination of Basque and Romani is called Erromintxela. Very few gitanos maintain a comprehensive and functional knowledge of Caló. A study on the actual usage patterns of Caló among a group of mainly Andalusian gitanos concluded that the language currently consists of between 350 and 400 unique terms, the knowledge of which varies considerably among gitanos. This would exclude a similar number of Calo words that have entered mainstream Spanish slang. According to the authors of the study, the majority of gitanos acknowledge that the language is in a terminal state, with many asserting that the language is totally lost.[36]
Religion
In Spain, gitanos were traditionally
They rarely go to folk healers, and they participate fully in Spain's state-supported medical system. Gitanos have a special involvement with recently- dead kin and visit their graves frequently. They spend more money than non-gitanos of equivalent economic classes in adorning grave sites.[38]
The Spanish
Marriage
The traditional Spanish Romani place a high value on the extended family. Virginity is essential in unmarried women. Both men and women often marry young.[41]
A traditional gitano wedding requires a pedimiento (similar to an engagement party) followed by the casamiento (wedding ceremony), where el yeli must be sung to the bride to celebrate the virginity and honour of the bride (proven by the ritual of the pañuelo). In the pañuelo ritual, a group consisting of an ajuntaora (a professional who is skilled in performing the ritual and is paid by the family), along with the married women of the family, take the bride into a separate room during the wedding and examine her to ascertain that she is a virgin. The ajuntaora is the one who performs the ritual on the bride, as the other women watch to be witnesses that the bride is virgin. The ajuntaora wraps a white, decoratively embroidered cloth (the pañuelo) around her index finger and inserts it shallowly into the vaginal canal of the bride.[42] During this process, the Bartholin's glands are depressed, causing them to secrete a liquid that stains the cloth. This action is repeated with three different sections of the cloth to produce three stains, known as "rosas". This process is conceived by the women as the retrieval of the bride's "honra", her honour, contained within a "grape" inside her genitals which is popped during the examination, and the spillage collected onto the pañuelo.[43]
When finished with the exam, the women come out of the room and sing el yeli to the couple. During this, the men at the wedding rip their shirts and lift the wife onto their shoulders and do the same with the husband, as they sing "el yeli" to them. Weddings can last very long; up to three days is usual in Gitano culture. At weddings, gitanos invite everyone and anyone that they know of (especially other gitanos). On some occasions, payos (
Gitanos may also marry by elopement, an event that garners less approval than a wedding ceremony.[44]
Marginalisation
Marginalisation occurs on an institutional level. Gitano children are regularly segregated from their non-gitano peers and have poorer academic outcomes.[45] In 1978, 68% of adult gitanos were illiterate.[46] Literacy has greatly improved over time; approximately 10% of gitanos were illiterate as of 2006-2007 (with older gitanos much more likely than younger gitanos to be illiterate).[47] Ninety-eight percent of gitanos live below the poverty line.[48] Health outcomes and housing - including reduced access to clean water and electricity supplies - is worse amongst Roma compared to non-Roma in Spain and Portugal, in common with the other surveyed European countries.[45]
Roma continue to experience discrimination on an interpersonal level, such as by being refused entry to bars and clubs or losing their jobs if their ethnicity is made known to their employer. In 2016, the
The 2016 Pew Research poll found that 49% of Spaniards held unfavorable views of Roma.[51]
In literature
The gitano in Spanish society have inspired several authors:
- Romancero Gitano("Gypsy Ballad Book")
The Roma is the most basic, most profound, the most aristocratic of my country, as representative of their way and whoever keeps the flame, blood, and the alphabet of the universal Andalusian truth.
— Federico García Lorca
- Candela, the female protagonist of the story El Amor Brujo, by Manuel de Fallais Romani.
- Georges Bizet's operaof the same name.
- The beauty of a dark-haired Gitana has inspired artists such as Julio Romero de Torres.
- La Gitanilla ("The little Gypsy girl"), short story by Miguel de Cervantes and part of his Exemplary Novels
- Rocio Eva Granada, the escort in the novel Digital Fortress by Dan Brown
Music and dance
The art of Flamenco was developed in the Calé Romani culture of Southern Spain. Many famous Spanish flamenco musicians are of Romani ethnicity.[52]
Notable gitanos
Leaders and politicians
- Juan de Dios Ramírez Heredia, Spanish Socialist Workers' Party MEP
- Sara Giménez Giménez, Spanish Roma politician in Citizens political party
- Marià Rodríguez i Vázquez, general secretary of the CNT(1936–1939)
- Séfora Vargas, Spanish Gypsy political activist and lawyer
Historians, philologists and writers
- Silvia Agüero, feminist writer
- Joaquín Albaicín, writer, lecturer and columnist for the artistic life
- Matéo Maximoff, French writer born in Barcelona
Poets, novelists and playwrights
- José Heredia Maya, poet and dramaturge
- Luis Heredia Amaya, sculptor
- Antonio Maya Cortés, artist painter and sculptor
- Fabian de Castro, artist painter
Catholic saints and martyrs
- Ceferino Giménez Malla, blessed
- Emilia Fernández Rodríguez, the Basket Weaver, blessed[53]
Painters and sculptors
- Helios Gómez, artist, writer and poet
- Pablo Picasso, painter and sculptor[54] [failed verification]
- Juan Vargas, sculptor
Actors, comedians and entertainers
- Rogelio Durán, theatre actor and father of Swedish actress Noomi Rapace
- Pastora Vega, actress
- Alba Flores, actress; granddaughter of Antonio González (El Pescaílla) and daughter of singer Antonio Flores
- Jesús Castro (actor), actor of film The Niño.
- El Comandante Lara, comedian and singer
- Juan Rosa Mateo, comedian of Duo Sacapuntas
Footballers and football coaches
- José Antonio Reyes, ex-footballer, for Arsenal F.C., Sevilla FC...
- José Rodríguez Martínez, footballer, currently plays for Maccabi Haifa F.C.
- Jesús Seba, footballer, ex-Real Zaragoza
- Sevilla Fútbol Club(Sevilla FC)
- Carlos Muñoz, former footballer, with Real Oviedo
- Carlos Aranda, former footballer, with Sevilla FC
- Atletico Madrid
- Antonio Amaya, footballer, for Rayo Vallecano
- Marcos Márquez, footballer, ex-UD Las Palmas
- López Ramos, footballer, ex-UD Las Palmas
- Antonio Cortés Heredia, footballer for Málaga
- Ezequiel Calvente, ex-footballer Real Betis
- Téji Savanier, footballer frech of the origin calo Spanish, footballer Montpellier
- Jesús Navas, footballer, with Sevilla FC
Other athletes
- Rafael Soto, equestrian and Olympic medalist
- Faustino Reyes, boxer
- José Antonio Jiménez, boxer
- Patxi Ruiz Giménez, Basque pelota champion
Singers and musicians
- Carmen Amaya, Flamenco dancer
- Isabel Pantoja, singer, partially Calé
- Los Chunguitos, singers, brother duet
- Azúcar Moreno, singers, sister duet
- Manolo Caracol, Flamenco singer
- El Pescaílla, singer and composer, husband of Lola Flores
- Lolita Flores, singer and actress, daughter of Lola Flores and El Pescaílla
- Antonio Flores, singer and actor, son of Lola Flores and El Pescaílla
- Rosario Flores, singer and actress, daughter of Lola Flores and El Pescaílla
- Vicente Escudero, dancer and choreographer of Spanish Flamenco; occasionally painter, writer, cinematographic actor and flamenco singer
- Gipsy Kings, French group of Rumba flamenca
- Camarón de la Isla, Flamenco singer
- Farruquito, Flamenco dancer
- Los Niños de Sara, French fusion musicians
- Ketama, fusion musicians
- Kendji Girac, French singer
- Diego "El Cigala", Flamenco singer
- Joaquín Cortés, star flamenco dancer
- Beatriz Luengo, singer and actress
- La quinta estacion
- Jorge González, singer
- Manitas de Plata, guitar player
- Peret, Catalan singer, guitar player and composer of Catalan rumba
- Camela, singers of Spanish musical group of techno rumba and flamenco pop.
- Los Chichos, singers
- Las Grecas, singers
- Estrella Morente, singer
- Niña Pastori, singer and composer
- Belén Maya, bailaora (Flamenco dancer)
- Juan Villar, cantaor (Flamenco singer)
- José Mercé, cantaor (Flamenco singer)
- El Príncipe Gitano, cantaor (Flamenco singer) and bailaor (Flamenco dancer)
- Dolores Vargas, "La Terremoto" cantaora (Flamenco singer) and bailaora (Flamenco dancer)
- Gerardo Núñez, guitarist and composer
- Mario Maya, cantaor and bailaor
- Tomatito, Flamenco guitarist and composer
- Remedios Amaya, cantaora
- Falete, cantaor (Flamenco singer)
- La Chunga, bailaora (Flamenco dancer)
- Manuel Agujetas, cantaor
- Antonio Mairena, cantaor
- Manuel Torre, cantaor
- La Niña de los Peines, cantaora (Flamenco singer)
- Pastora Imperio, bailaora
- Chiquetete, cantaor
- El Lebrijano, Flamenco guitarist
- Paco Cepero, Flamenco guitarist
- Vicente Soto Sordera, cantaor
- Cancanilla de Marbella, cantaor and bailaor
- Perla de Cádiz, cantaora
- Manzanita, singer and guitarist
- Moraito Chico, guitarist of Flamenco
- Diego Carrasco, cantaor and guitarist
- Mala Rodríguez, singer
- La Serneta, cantaora
- Antonia La Negra, cantaora
- Lole y Manuel, Flamenco singers
- Alba Molina, singer
- Rancapino, cantaor
- Sabicas, Flamenco Guitarist
- Pilar Montoya, bailaora
- Juana la Macarrona, cantaora
- Antonio Carmona, singer of Flamenco
- La Macanita, cantaora
- Pansequito, cantaor
Gitano surnames
Due to
though they are not exclusive to them:- Altamira or Altamirano
- Amaya
- Antunes or Antúnez (alternatively, Antuñez)
- Calaf (Catalan Gypsy)
- Cortés
- Fernández
- Flores
- Gabarri (Catalan Gypsy)
- Gutiérrez or Guiterez
- Heredia
- Jiménez or Giménez
- Malla or Maya
- Molina
- Montoya
- Monge or Monje
- Moreno
- Morgade
- Motos
- Pereiro or Pereira
- Pubill (Catalan Gypsy)
- Ravelino or Rabellino
- Reyes
- Sandoval
- Salazar
- Santi
- Santiago
- Vargas LP
- Villar or Vilar
- Viso
- Carretero
- Pérez
- González
- Escudero
- Ximénez[57]
See also
- Triana, Seville, a neighbourhood traditionally linked to Gitano history.
- Sacromonte, the traditional Gitano quarter of Granada.
- George Borrow, an English missionary and traveller who studied the Calé of Spain and other parts of Europe.
- Quinqui, a nomad community of Spain with a similar lifestyle, but of unrelated origin.
- Cagot, similarly historically persecuted people in France and Spain.
- Cascarots, an ethnic group in the Spanish Basque country and the French Basque coast sometimes linked to the Cagots.
- Cleanliness of blood, ethnic discrimination in the Spanish Old Regime.
- Maragato], an ethnic group in Spain who were also discriminated against and have unknown origins.
- Vaqueiros de alzada, a discriminated group of cowherders in Northern Spain.
- Xueta a persecuted ethnic minority in Mallorca, often referenced in works discussing the persecution of Cagots in Spain.
References
Sources
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- Worth, Susannah and Sibley, Lucy R. "Maja Dress and the Andalusian Image of Spain." Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Summer 1994, Vol. 12, pp. 51–60.
Notes
- ^ a b "Diagnóstico social de la comunidad gitana en España" (PDF). Msc.es. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2016-05-21.
- ^ "Estimations" (JPG). Gfbv.it. Retrieved 2016-05-21.
- ^ "The Situation of Roma in Spain" (PDF). Open Society Institute. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
The Spanish government estimates the number of Gitanos at a maximum of 650,000.
- ^ Recent Migration of Roma in Europe, A study by Mr. Claude Cahn and Professor Elspeth Guild, page 87-8 (09.2010 figures)
- ^ "Roma/Gypsies". Minority Rights Group. 19 June 2015.
- ISBN 978-90-481-8945-8.
- .
- .
- ^ Gay y Blasco, Paloma (2000). "The Politics of Evangelism: Hierarchy, Masculinity and Religious Conversion Among Gitanos". Romani Studies. 10 (1): 4.
- ^ "egiptano - Diccionario Dirae". Dirae.es. Retrieved 23 December 2017.
- ^ "Diccionario de la lengua española - Vigésima segunda edición". Buscon.rae.es. Retrieved 2013-08-15.
- ^ THE STATE AND THE ROMA IN SPAIN
- ISBN 978-0-19-815993-3.
- ISBN 978-1-902806-19-8: 'While a nine century removal from India has diluted Indian biological connection to the extent that for some Romani groups, it may be hardly representative today, Sarren (1976:72) concluded that we still remain together, genetically, Asian rather than European')
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: postscript (link - ^ PMID 23219723.
- ^ a b Bhanoo, Sindya N. (11 December 2012). "Genomic Study Traces Roma to Northern India". The New York Times.
- ^ Current Biology.
- ^ ISBN 9780786494705. Retrieved 2016-05-21.
- ^ ISBN 9781858286358. Retrieved 2016-05-21.
- ISBN 978-80-7044-205-0, archived from the original(PDF) on 2016-03-04
- ^ Hübschmannová, Milena (1995). "Romaňi čhib – romština: Několik základních informací o romském jazyku". Bulletin Muzea Romské Kultury (4/1995). Brno: Muzeum romské kultury.
Zatímco romská lexika je bližší hindštině, marvárštině, pandžábštině atd., v gramatické sféře nacházíme mnoho shod s východoindickým jazykem, s bengálštinou.
- ^ "5 Intriguing Facts About the Roma". Live Science. 23 October 2013.
- PMID 23209554
- ^ DIÁLOGOS. REVISTA ELECTRÓNICA DE HISTORIA
- ^ Viellieard, Jeanne, Pèlerins d'Espagne a la fin de Moten âge (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-08-20, retrieved 2018-05-20
- ^ Unión Romaní Archived 2008-05-09 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Spain : Roma/Gypsies
- ^ Alejandro Martínez Dhier, La condición social y jurídica de los gitanos en la legislación histórica española (PDF), Universidad de Granada, p. 53
- S2CID 36365458
- ^ a b c d Library of Congress Federal Research Division (December 1988). "The Gypsies". Spain: A Country Study. p. 99. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ The Great “Gypsy” Round-up in Spain
- ^ Resisting Respectability: Gypsies In Saragossa
- ^ Flamenco and Its Gitanos An Investigation of the Paradox of Andalusia: History, Politics and Dance Art
- ^ Roma in an Expanding Europe: Breaking the Poverty Cycle
- ^ The Situation of Roma in Spain
- ^ Gamella, Juan F; Fernández, Cayetano; Nieto, Magdalena; Adiego, Ignasi-Xavier (December 2011). "La agonía de una lengua. Lo que queda del caló en el habla de los gitanos. Parte I. Métodos, fuentes y resultados generales". Gazeta de Antropologia (in Spanish). Universidad de Granada. Retrieved 13 February 2020.
- ^ Bohlen, Celestine (5 May 1997). "Spanish Martyr Is First Gypsy Beatified by Catholic Church". The New York Times.
- ^ Gitanos
- ^ "Evangelics fish faithful in catholic crisis" Archived 2009-02-28 at the Wayback Machine; FEREDE, October 2008 (in Spanish)
- ^ Gay y Blasco 2002 p. 634
- ^ A `Different' Body? Desire and Virginity Among Gitanos
- ^ "Mujeres Gitanas Documental". YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-19.
- JSTOR 3034765.
- ^ Gay y Blasco 1997, p. 528
- ^ ISBN 978-92-9491-871-0. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2023-08-04. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
- ^ Experiencias y trayectorias de éxito escolar de gitanas y gitanos en España, p. 100.
- ^ Historias de éxito: Modelos para reducir el abandono escolar de la adolescencia gitana, p. 120.
- ISBN 978-3-030-26542-7.
- ^ Vidal, Marta (4 February 2019). "Portuguese shopkeepers using ceramic frogs to 'scare away' Roma". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 4 May 2021.
- ^ Silva, Claudia Carvalho (28 June 2019). "Minipreço retira sapo de loiça usado para afastar ciganos e pede desculpa". PÚBLICO (in Portuguese). Retrieved 13 February 2020.
- ^ "Negative opinions about Roma, Muslims in several European nations". Pew Research Center. 11 July 2016.
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- ^ El Mundo (23 June 2016) Emilia 'la Canastera', la primera gitana mártir
- ^ [1]
- ISBN 84-239-2289-8. Section III.3.8 page XXXIX.
- ^ Gamella, Juan F.; Gómez Alfaro, Antonio; Pérez Pérez, Juan. "Los apellidos de los gitanos españoles en los censos de 1783-85 - Artículos - Revista de Humanidades". www.revistadehumanidades.com (in Spanish). Retrieved 3 February 2020.
- ^ Nominal Assimilation: The Ethnic and National Identities of the Gitanos or Calé of Spain as Shown by their Surnames in the 1783–1785 Census
External links
- Romani union (in English)(English exonym present)
- Romani presence in European Music (in Spanish)