Romania in the Middle Ages
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The Middle Ages in Romania began shortly after the withdrawal of the Roman legions from the former Roman province of Dacia in the late 3rd century and with the start of the Early Middle Ages and the Migration Period that followed afterwards respectively. It subsequently came to an end with the reign of Domn Michael the Brave (1593–1601) who managed, for a short time between 1599 and 1600, to rule Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania together, the three principalities whose territories were to be united some three centuries later to form modern and contemporary Romania.
Over most of this period,
Wallachia, the first independent
Transylvania, together with the neighboring counties, gained the status of an autonomous state under Ottoman suzerainty after the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary had been annexed by the Ottomans in 1541. The fall of the kingdom also deprived Wallachia and Moldavia of their main ally in the struggle against the Ottoman Empire. In 1594, Michael the Brave of Wallachia joined the anti-Ottoman alliance initiated by Pope Clement VIII. After a series of victory over the Ottomans, he turned against Transylvania and Moldavia where pro-Polish and pro-Ottoman princes were reigning. He invaded and occupied Transylvania in 1599, and Moldavia in 1600. Although the personal union of the three countries collapsed four months later, it served as an ideal for later generations working for the unification of the lands that now form Romania.
Early Middle Ages (late 8th century–early 13th century)
At the end of the 8th century the establishment of the
In the 9th century centrifugal movements commenced in the Khazar Kaghanate.
In 953, the
Stephen I granted privileges to the Roman Catholic Church, for example by ordering the general imposition of the tithe upon the population.[17][18] Burials in most local pre-Christian cemeteries, for example at Hunedoara, only ceased around 1100.[19] Stephen I also divided his kingdom, including the territories of modern Romania he had occupied, into counties, that is administrative units around royal fortresses, each administered by a royal official called count.[20] In time the voivode, a higher royal official first attested in 1176, became the principal of all the counts in Transylvania.[21][22] In contrast with Transylvania, the counts in modern Banat and Crișana remained in direct contact with the king who appointed and replaced them at will.[22]
From the end of the 9th century the
The 11th-century settlements in Transylvania are characterized by small
In the 12th and 13th centuries hospites ("guest settlers") arrived in Transylvania from Germany and from the
As a result of the Saxon immigration, the Székelys – Hungarian-speaking free warriors cultivating communal lands – were transferred to the southeast of the province.[37][38][39][40] From the 13th century they were governed independently from the voivode by a royal official, the count of the Székelys.[41] Besides the Saxons, the Cistercians became the agents of expansion in Transylvania.[42] When their abbey at Cârța was established in the early 13th century, Andrew II ordered that the strip of land running up to the mountains between the rivers Olt, Cârțișoara and Arpaș be transferred from the Romanians to the new monastery.[42][43]
Following
The expansion across the Carpathians was stopped by the invasion of the Mongols that lasted from March 31, 1241 to April, 1242.[49][50] It was a major watershed in the medieval history of the region: although the number of casualties is disputed, even the most prudent estimates do not go below 15 percent of the total population.[51][52]
High Middle Ages (1242–1396)
Outer-Carpathian regions
After the withdrawal from the Kingdom of Hungary, the Mongol forces halted at
By the middle of the 14th century, the westernmost Mongol territories had become subject to frequent Polish and Hungarian military offensives.[59] Grand Prince Olgierd of Lithuania penetrated farther into the territories controlled by the Golden Horde than any European army had hitherto done.[60] He won a major victory over the united Mongol troops on the Dnieper near the Black Sea in 1363.[60][61]
Intra-Carpathian regions
Having been raided twice by the Mongols within a single year, Transylvania felt the consequences of the invasion of 1241–1242 for more than two decades.[48][51] The administrative centers of the province, such as Alba Iulia and Cetatea de Baltă, had been destroyed.[48] Due to the severe depopulation, a process of organized colonization commenced that lasted for several decades.[62] For example, a new wave of colonization resulted in the establishment of the Saxon seats of Sighișoara and Mediaș; and the lord of Ilia received, in 1292, royal permission to settle Romanians in the lands he owned.[36][63][64]
Since only castles built of stone and walled towns had been able to resist Mongol attacks, following the withdrawal of the Mongols the kings encouraged both the landowners and the townspeople to build stone fortifications.
In 1257,
By that time, the Romanians' military role had expanded from their original task of defending the kingdom's frontiers.[76] They participated in several military campaigns, for example against Bohemia in 1260 and against Austria in 1291.[76][77] Their economic role became also recognized, since their pastoral activities connected to cloth production of the Saxon settlements.[78] To the monarchs, they paid a special tax in sheep, called the "fiftieth".[76] Andrew III of Hungary (1290–1301) even ordered, in 1293, that all the Romanians who had been settled without royal permission on noble domains be returned to the royal estate of Armeni.[77][79]
In the last decades of the 13th century, congregatio generalis ("general assembly") convoked by the monarchs or their representatives became an important organ of
When Andrew III died in 1301, the entire kingdom was in the hands of a
After the king's victory, one of his loyal adherents,
In this period, one of the major incentives for the growth of Transylvanian towns was the trade with Wallachia and Moldavia.[99] For instance, Brașov was granted a staple right in 1369 with respect to the trade in cloth from Poland or Germany.[100] Thereafter, foreign merchants had to sell their most sought-after merchandise, broadcloth to the tradesmen of Brașov who resold it in Wallachia in exchange for animals, cotton, wax and honey.[99][100]
In the 14th century, the name "district" was generalized for the forms of territorial organizations of the Romanians, but only few of them, for instance their district in Bereg County (now in Hungary and Ukraine), achieved official recognition.[79][101] Maramureș, where Romanians were first mentioned in 1326, was the only district that transformed, around 1380, into a county.[102][103][104] Louis I of Hungary (1342–1382) issued a royal decree in 1366 which prescribed firm judicial measures against "the malefactors of any nation, especially Romanians".[105]
Louis I's decree also regulated the legal status of the knezes, the Romanians' local leaders, by establishing a distinction between knezes "brought to" their lands by royal writ whose testimony in court weighed like that of nobles ("noble knezes"), and others whose evidence counted for less ("commoner knezes").[106][107][108] This distinction, however, did not mean real nobility and grant them exemption from royal taxes, even for the noble knezes.[106] Their status corresponded to that of the Hungarian "conditional nobles" whose nobility depended on the specified military services they were to render.[106][109]
According to a royal decree of 1428, Louis I had also ordered that only Catholics be granted land in the
Establishment of Wallachia
According to a charter issued by Béla IV of Hungary for the
Romanian historical tradition associates the foundation of Wallachia with the
The boyars, members of the landed nobility, formed the most important social group in the principality.[127] The vast majority of the population was formed by peasants who were called several names, such as vecini ("neighbors") or rumâni ("Romanians"), in medieval documents.[110][128] In this period, animals, especially sheep, remained the main item of export, but from the Wallachian Plain great quantities of grain were transported to the Mediterranean area.[129] The basis of the peasants' diet was formed by millet eaten as porridge, while the boyars also used wheat.[130]
The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Wallachia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in 1359.[131] Wallachia issued its own currency under Vladislav I (1364–c. 1377).[132] The earliest written information about Gypsies in modern Romania, a deed issued by Dan I of Wallachia (c. 1383–1386) refers to Vladislav I's former donation of Gypsies to the Vodița monastery.[133] Later on, all the important monasteries and boyars owned Gipsy slaves.[134][135]
The Ottomans entered for the first time into Wallachia in 1395.[136] Although the invading troops were defeated somewhere in a rovină ("ragged marshland") in Oltenia, the chaos created by the threat of attacks allowed a group of boyars to put Vlad I the Usurper (1395–1397) on the throne.[136][137] Thus Mircea I was forced to take refuge in Transylvania, where he agreed to be Sigismund I of Hungary's vassal.[113][138] He was restored to the throne and participated in the disastrous crusade of Nicopolis organized by Sigismund I.[113][115][137]
Establishment of Moldavia
After 1241 the territory between the
Nevertheless, the contemporary
Romanian historical tradition links the foundation of Moldavia to
In Moldavia, agriculture and animal raising remained the principal economic activities.
The succession to the throne, similarly to Wallachia, was governed by the hereditary-elective principle.
Dobruja
After 1242 most of the territory between the Danube and the
Towards the middle of the 14th century a state dependent of the Byzantine Empire, known as "
Towards Ottoman domination (1397–1529)
Intra-Carpathian regions
In order to establish a zone of buffer states, Sigismund I of Hungary tried to draw the neighboring Orthodox rulers under his own suzerainty by granting them estates in his kingdom.
The increasing defense costs fell primarily on the serfs: the rent on the land was raised and extraordinary taxes were imposed.
The Ottomans' attempt to conquer new territories led to a better organized policy against them.
Matthias I used his officials to assert royal prerogatives that had already fallen into disuse.[181] The noblemen found it particularly irksome that the lucrum camarae, a tax from which they had been exempted was replaced with a new tax.[182] In Transylvania, the "Three Nations" entered into a formal alliance against the king in 1467, but he quickly intervened and took the disorganized rebels by surprise.[183][184]
By that time, the land once held in common by the Székely community had gradually become divided into smaller and smaller units; thus a vast number of the free warrior-peasants had to enter the service of their more prosperous fellow Székelys.[185] This social stratification was formally recognized by a royal decree in 1473.[185] Thereafter those who performed mounted military service were differentiated from those who fought as foot-soldiers; those who were unable to finance themselves even as foot-soldiers were legally reduced to servitude.[186]
The prominence of the German element in the towns sometimes led to conflicts along ethnic lines.[187] Thus the struggle for leadership in Cluj (now Cluj-Napoca) between Hungarians and Saxons only came to an end in 1458 by establishing a rule that municipal offices must be shared equally between the two groups.[187] In 1486, Matthias I united all the Saxon districts in Transylvania in the "University of the Saxons" under the leadership of the elected mayor of Sibiu.[188][189]
After Matthias I's death, the assembly of the Estates, called Diet, began to function as a regular organ of power.
The downfall of the Kingdom of Hungary was marked by the battle of Mohács (Hungary) where the royal army was annihilated by the Ottomans on August 29, 1526.[196][197][198] Thereafter the noblemen's political factions engaged in conflict and elected two kings.[199] One of them, John I Szapolyai (1526–1540) was supported by the lesser nobility, while Ferdinand I of Habsburg (1526–1564) was recognized mainly in the kingdom's western counties, but the Transylvanian Saxons also supported him.[192][200] Seeking the assistance of the Ottomans, John I had to pay homage to the sultan at Mohács in 1529.[201]
Wallachia
After the battle of Nicopolis, the Ottomans occupied Bulgaria and could attack Wallachia more easily.[137] Mircea I the Old, however, could reoccupy Dobruja in 1402 by taking advantage of the Ottomans' difficulties after their defeat by Timur Lenk in the battle of Ankara.[137][202] He even intervened in the Ottoman civil war and supported the struggle of Musa and Mustafa against their brother, Mehmed I.[203][204] After the two pretenders had been defeated, the Ottomans annexed again Dobruja and occupied Giurgiu, and Mircea I was forced to pay an annual tribute to the sultan.[205][206] Under Mircea I iron mines were opened at Baia de Fier and copper mining began at Baia de Aramă.[207][208] In addition, sulfur and amber were extracted in the region of Buzău.[208]
After Mircea I's death, princes succeeded one another on the throne with devastating frequency.[125] For instance, Michael I (1418–1420) was overthrown by his cousin, Dan II (1420–1431), and in the next decade the throne was occupied with frequent changes either by Dan II or by his cousin, Radu II the Bald (1421–1427), the former being supported by Sigismund I of Hungary and the latter by the Ottomans.[209][210][211]
After 1462 Wallachia preserved its autonomy mainly through the intervention of Stephen the Great of Moldavia.[220] At the end of the century, however, Radu IV the Great (1495–1508) became an obedient subject of the sultan and visited Istanbul annually to personally offer the tribute.[221] Even so, he could only stay in power by collaborating with the powerful Craiovești family, strongly connected to the Ottomans by trading.[221] In 1512 a member of this family, Neagoe (1512–1521) rose to throne, but he adopted the dynastic name of Basarab in order to legitimize his rule.[222][223] He wrote the first original work of Romanian literature, titled Teachings, to his son, Teodosius on moral, political, and military questions.[223][224]
Under Theodosius I (1521–1522) the Ottoman governor of Nicopolis take advantage of the internal fights among the boyar parties, and thus dominated the political life of Wallachia.[225] Due to the imminent danger of annexation, the boyars grouped around Radu V of Afumați (1522–1529) who fought about 20 battles against the Ottomans.[225][226] Finally, he was, in 1525, forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty and the rise of the tribute.[225]
Moldavia
The Orthodox Metropolitan See of Moldavia was recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarch during the reign of
Although
In the early years of his reign, he remained allied with Poland and the Ottoman Empire,[234] and even joined the Ottomans in attacking Wallachia.[234] He also supported the rebellion of 1467 of the Transylvanian Estates; therefore Matthias I of Hungary launched an expedition against Moldavia, but the royal army was defeated in the battle of Baia.[237] [238] He came to view the Ottoman Empire as his chief enemy in the 1470s, and in 1474 he refused to pay tribute.[235][239][240] He soon received the ultimatum of Mehmed II who demanded the surrender of Chilia, a fortress recently captured from Wallachia.[240] Upon Stephen III's refusal, a large Ottoman army was sent against Moldavia.[240] He called on Pope Sixtus IV, pleading for a crusade.[237] Although the pope acknowledged his merits, by naming him "the Athlete of Christ", no anti-Ottoman coalition materialized.[237] Even without external military support, Stephen the Great led his troops to victory in the battle of Vaslui on January 10, 1475.[235][239] Following the battle, he addressed a letter to the Christian princes, expressing the idea that the two Romanian principalities were the "gateway to the Christian world", and if they fell "all Christendom would be in danger".[239][241]
He also recognized Matthias I of Hungary as his suzerain and received, in return, Ciceu and Cetatea de Baltă in Transylvania.
He was succeeded by his son,
Ottoman suzerainty (1530–1594)
Establishment of Principality of Transylvania
After 1529, resistance to John I in Transylvania was broken in a series of small campaigns.
However, John I married a daughter of
On October 18, the kingdom's eastern territories, including Transylvania, swore allegiance to the infant king at the Diet of Debrecen (Hungary).[251] Thus a separate country started to emerge, although George Martinuzzi was still negotiating with Ferdinand I on the reunification of the kingdom.[252] For this purpose, in 1551 Ferdinand I sent an army into Transylvania where he was recognized as sole ruler by the Diet.[253] The Ottomans, however, occupied a great part of Banat in 1552, and neither could Ferdinand I consolidate his rule over the kingdom's eastern territories.[254][255] Finally, the Diet, meeting in Sebeș on March 12, 1556, swore again allegiance to "the son of King John", thus the young king and his mother returned to Transylvania.[254][256]
The 16th century also brought about major religious changes: the Saxons converted to
It (Transylvania) is inhabited by three nations – Székelys, Hungarians and Saxons. I should add the Romanians who – even though they easily equal the others in number – have no liberties, no nobility and no rights of their own, except for a small number living in the district of Hațeg, where it is believed that the capital of Decebalus lay, and who were made nobles during the time of John Hunyadi, a native of that place, because they always took part tirelessly in the battles against the Turks. All others are common people, serfs of the Hungarians and without settlements of their own, scattered everywhere, throughout the entire country, rarely settled in open places, most of them retired in the woods, leading an unfortunate life alongside their flocks.
From the Székelys, continuing warfare demanded increased military service, and the royal administration imposed special taxes on them.[265] Although the leaders of the Székely community were exempted from taxation in 1554, but all the foot soldiers continued to be taxed, resulting in a double burden of military and monetary obligations for them.[265] In 1562 many Székelys took up arms against John II Sigismund, but they were defeated.[266] The Saxon towns continued to develop even in the years of upheaval.[267][268] Their population, however, increased slowly, mainly as a consequence of the Saxons' traditional desire for segregation: even Hungarian craftsmen and merchants were prohibited from settling in their towns.[267]
In the Treaty of Speyer of August 16, 1570, John II Sigismund acknowledged his rival, Maximilian I (1564–1576) as the lawful king of Hungary and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary".[254][269] The treaty also marked out the borders of the new principality, which included not only the historical province of Transylvania, but also some neighboring counties, such as Bihor and Maramureș, thenceforward collectively known as Partium.[270] The death of John II Sigismund in 1571 threatened to throw the country again into the hands of the Habsburgs whose officers supported the Unitarian Gáspár Bekes.[271][272] Now the sultan appointed Stephen Báthory, a Catholic politician, voivode.[271][272]
The decisive battle between the two candidates was won by Stephen Báthory at Sânpaul on July 8, 1575.[272] In the same year, he was elected king of Poland, thus a personal union was formed between the two countries that lasted until his death in 1586.[273] He left the administration of the principality first to his brother, Christopher Báthory (1575–1581), and then to his brother's minor son, Sigismund Báthory (1581–1602), bestowing on them the title of voivode, while he himself took the title of prince.[274][275]
In February, 1594 Sigismund Báthory announced that his country would join the anti-Ottoman alliance formed by the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II, Philip II of Spain and many smaller Italian and German states.[276][277] Although the Estates twice refused to endorse the declaration of war, Transylvania joined the alliance on January 28, 1595 after the leaders of the opposition had been executed on the order of the monarch.[277] In return Rudolph II recognized Sigismund's title of prince.[277]
Wallachia
The short and unworthy reigns of Radu V's successors only increased the crisis of Wallachia.
He soon embarked upon a program to strengthen the central authority by replacing the members of the sfatul domnesc, an advisory body consisting of boyars, with dregători, that is officials personally loyal to him.[282] Michael the Brave also adopted an anti-Ottoman policy, and upon his initiative Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Aaron the Tyrant of Moldavia (1591–1595) signed a treaty to form an anti-Ottoman alliance.[276] The rebellion started by the massacre of all the Ottomans in Wallachia on November 13, 1594.[281]
Moldavia
In 1531 Peter IV Rareș invaded Poland in order to reoccupy the
The idea of anti-Ottoman struggle was revived by John III the Terrible (1572–1574) who refused to pay the tribute to the sultan.[285][286] As a result, Ottoman and Wallachian troops invaded Moldavia, but they were defeated by John III in a surprise attack near Jiliște.[285] Now the sultan sent a large army against Moldavia, and the prince was captured and quartered.[287] Next Aaron the Tyrant joined the anti-Ottoman coalition of Transylvania and Wallachia, and started a rebellion on November 13, 1594, simultaneously with Michael the Brave of Wallachia.[288]
The 16th century was characterized by the flourishing of ecclesiastical
Age of Michael the Brave (1595–1601)
Following their coordinated uprising, Michael the Brave attacked Ottoman strongholds along the Danube and recovered Giurgiu and Brăila, while Aaron the Tyrant seized
According to the treaty signed by Michael the Brave on May 20, 1595 in Alba Iulia, Sigismund Báthory became the ruler of the three principalities and adopted the title of "prince of Transylvania, Moldavia and Transalpine Wallachia".[293] The treaty stipulated, that the taxes would be established in Wallachia by the Transylvanian Diet, together with a council of 12 Wallachian boyars.[292][293][294] Around that time, the peasants were bound to the land both in Wallachia and Moldavia.[294]
Ottoman troops entered Wallachia in the summer, but they were defeated by Michael the Brave at Călugăreni and by the united armies of the three principalities at Giurgiu.[295][296] In the meantime, however, the Poles had invaded Moldavia and replaced Ștefan Răzvan by Ieremia Movilă (1595–1606).[297] In June 1598 Michael the Brave recognized the suzerainty of Emperor Rudolph II, who had promised to grant subsidies to him to finance his mercenaries.[298]
On March 30, 1599 Sigismund Báthory abdicated the throne in favor of his cousin, Andrew Báthory (1599).[299] The new prince was loyal to the Poles and promptly demanded that Michael the Brave accept his suzerainty.[299][300] The latter secured the emperor's approval for an invasion of Transylvania and attacked the principality where the Székelys also joined him.[299] He defeated his opponent at Șelimbăr on October 28, 1599 and entered Alba Iulia.[301] Here the Diet recognized him as imperial governor.[302] He respected the traditional organization of Transylvania, and even crushed a revolt of the Romanian peasants, but forced the Diet to relieve the Orthodox priests of feudal obligations.[303] In the spring of 1600, he invaded Moldavia in the name of the emperor and established control over it.[304] In July he even proclaimed himself "prince of Wallachia, Transylvania, and all of Moldavia" in Iași, thus bringing about the union of the three principalities.[305][306]
However, the Hungarian noblemen, dissatisfied with the disorder, rebelled against his rule, and defeated him at Mirăslău on September 18, 1600.[306] At the same time, the Poles invaded Moldavia and restored Ieremia Movilă to the throne; then they entered Wallachia, where Simion Movilă defeated Michael the Brave at Buzău.[306][307] In this moment of crisis, Michael the Brave left for Prague to appeal to the emperor for support.[308] He returned to Transylvania in July 1601 at the head of an imperial army.[308] Cooperating with the imperial general, Giorgio Basta, he defeated the Transylvanian troops at Guruslău on August 3, but on August 19 he was assassinated on the order of his former ally, Giorgio Basta.[308][309]
After the first union
After Michael the Brave's death, Transylvania was ruled by an imperial military commission, but under
Wallachia and Moldavia fell back under the control of the Ottoman Empire after Michael the Brave's death.
See also
- Banat in the Middle Ages
- List of Wallachian rulers(up to 1859)
- List of Moldavian rulers(up to 1859)
- List of Transylvanian rulers(up to 1918)
Footnotes
- ^ a b c Treptow et al. 1997, p. 52.
- ^ Spinei 2009, pp. 47–49.
- ^ a b Spinei 2009, p. 50.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 135.
- ^ Spinei 2009, p. 223.
- ^ Klepper 2002, p. 44.
- ^ a b Sălăgean 2005, p. 145.
- ^ a b Notary of King Béla, Anonymus. Gesta Hungarorum (PDF).
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, pp. 140–141.
- ^ Spinei 2009, p. 75.
- ^ Kristó 2003, p. 32.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 147.
- ^ Engel 2001, pp. 20, 24.
- ^ Kristó 2003, p. 65.
- ^ Kristó 2003, p. 66.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, pp. 148, 150.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 164.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 44.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 250.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 275.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 355.
- ^ a b Kristó 2003, p. 98.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 153.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 181.
- ^ Spinei 2006, pp. 103–105.
- ^ Klepper 2005, p. 46.
- ^ Curta 2006, pp. 306–307.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 306.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 11.
- ^ a b c Curta 2006, p. 251.
- ^ Kristó 2003, p. 112.
- ^ a b Kristó 2003, p. 171.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 352.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 163.
- ^ a b c Sălăgean 2005, p. 164.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, pp. 164–165.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 194.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 116.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 115.
- ^ a b Curta 2006, p. 354.
- ^ Makkai 1994, p. 189.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 211.
- ^ a b c Makkai 1994, p. 193.
- ^ Spinei 2006, p. 154.
- ^ Spinei 2006, pp. 154–155.
- ^ a b c Sălăgean 2005, p. 175.
- ^ a b Curta 2006, p. 414.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 174.
- ^ a b c Curta 2006, p. 413.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 102.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 214.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 215.
- ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 69.
- ^ Vásáry 2005, pp. 71–72.
- ^ Fine 1994, p. 227.
- ^ Vásáry 2005, pp. 91–92, 161.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, pp. 199–200.
- ^ a b Sedlar 1994, p. 380.
- ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 164.
- ^ Kristó 2003, p. 159.
- ^ Kristó 2003, pp. 76, 159.
- ^ Makkai 1994, p. 214.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 118.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 206.
- ^ Kristó 2003, pp. 160–161.
- ^ Kristó 2003, pp. 187–188.
- ^ Kristó 2003, p. 178.
- ^ Kristó 2003, pp. 160, 176.
- ^ Kristó 2003, p. 162.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 177.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 287.
- ^ a b Engel 2001, p. 108.
- ^ a b Sălăgean 2005, p. 180.
- ^ a b c Sălăgean 2005, p. 187.
- ^ a b Kristó 2003, p. 143.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 119.
- ^ a b Makkai 1994, p. 198.
- ^ Kristó 2003, p. 220.
- ^ Kristó 2003, pp. 220–221.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 181.
- ^ Pop 1999, p. 53.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 183.
- ^ a b Makkai 1994, p. 204.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 126.
- ^ a b Vásáry 2005, p. 149.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, pp. 185–186.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, pp. 185–187.
- ^ Pop 1999, p. 50.
- ^ a b Kristó 2003, p. 231.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 131.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 188.
- ^ a b c Makkai 1994, p. 205.
- ^ Sălăgean 2005, p. 189.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 144.
- ^ László Makkai (2001). "Saxon Towns and Political Unity". History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606 – Transylvania in the Medieval Hungarian Kingdom. mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár). Retrieved 2010-11-01.
- ^ Kristó 2003, p. 235.
- ^ a b Makkai 1994, p. 233.
- ^ a b c Sedlar 1994, p. 356.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 234.
- ^ Pop 1999, p. 55.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 270.
- ^ a b Makkai 1994, p. 219.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 219–220, 258.
- ^ a b c Makkai 1994, p. 215.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 64.
- ^ Pop, Ioan-Aurel (2003). "Nations and Denominations in Transylvania (13th-16th Century)" (PDF). Tolerance and Intolerance in Historical Perspective. www.stm.unipi.it (Università di Pisa, Dipartimento di Storia). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2011-01-19.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 247.
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 77.
- ^ Makkai 1994, pp. 218–220.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 239–240.
- ^ a b c Engel 2001, p. 203.
- ^ Fine 1994, p. 424.
- ^ a b Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 148.
- ^ Curta 2006, p. 407.
- ^ a b Sălăgean 2005, p. 190.
- ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 16.
- ^ Vásáry 2005, pp. 146–147.
- ^ a b c Treptow et al. 1997, p. 65.
- ^ a b Sălăgean 2005, p. 191.
- ^ Pop 1999, p. 45.
- ^ Stoica Ludescu (?). "Istoria Ţării Rumîneşti de cînd au descălecat pravoslavnicii creştini (History of Wallachia from the time when the Orthodox Christians dismounted there)". Letopiseţul Cantacuzinesc. www.bmb-on-line.ro. Archived from the original on 2011-07-27. Retrieved 2010-11-01.
- ^ Klepper 2002, p. 52.
- ^ a b Sedlar 1994, p. 32.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 39.
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- ^ Pop 2005, p. 214.
- ^ a b c d Georgescu 1991, p. 22.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 236.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 249.
- ^ Achim 2004, p. 13.
- ^ a b Achim 2004, p. 14.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 104.
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 99.
- ^ a b c d Pop 2005, p. 254.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 176.
- ^ a b Georgescu 1991, p. 17.
- ^ a b Brezianu & Spânu 2007, p. xxiv.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, p. 69.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 166.
- ^ Georgescu 1991, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 88.
- ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 18.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. li.
- ^ Vásáry 2005, p. 156.
- ^ Pop 1999, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, p. 72.
- ^ a b c Georgescu 1991, p. 23.
- ^ a b Brezianu & Spânu 2007, p. xxv.
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 83.
- ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 35.
- ^ a b Brezianu & Spânu 2007, p. 284.
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- ^ a b c Sălăgean 2005, p. 202.
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- ^ a b c Pop 2005, p. 259.
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- ^ a b Makkai 1994, p. 225.
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 79.
- ^ a b Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 44.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 258.
- ^ Makkai 1994, p. 226.
- ^ a b Pop 2005, p. 260.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, pp. 109–110.
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- ^ Pop 2005, p. 261.
- ^ Engel 2001, p. 285.
- ^ Makkai 1994, p. 227.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 262.
- ^ Makkai 1994, p. 231.
- ^ Sedlar 1994, p. 272.
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- ^ Pop 1999, p. 63.
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- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 215.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. xlviii, 215.
- ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 21.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 271.
- ^ a b Pop 2005, p. 272.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 273.
- ^ a b Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 147.
- ^ a b Georgescu 1991, p. 68.
- ^ a b c Pop 2005, p. 274.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. xlviii-xlvix.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 24.
- ^ a b Pop 2005, p. 255.
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 109.
- ^ a b c Pop 2005, p. 256.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. lii.
- ^ Georgescu 1991, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Achim 2004, p. 47.
- ^ a b c Treptow et al. 1997, p. 115.
- ^ a b c d Sedlar 1994, p. 396.
- ^ Pop 1999, p. 64.
- ^ a b c Brezianu & Spânu 2007, p. 338.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 266.
- ^ a b c d Pop 2005, p. 267.
- ^ a b c d Treptow et al. 1997, p. 116.
- ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 45.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, pp. 116–117.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 269.
- ^ a b Pop 2005, p. 276.
- ^ a b Pop 2005, p. 277.
- ^ a b Barta 1994, p. 251.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 140.
- ^ Kontler 1999, pp. 140–142.
- ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 142.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 253.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 254.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 146.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 257.
- ^ a b c Kontler 1999, p. 148.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 283–284.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 258.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 281.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 287.
- ^ Georgescu 1991, p. 41.
- ^ Kontler 1999, p. 152.
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 134.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 282.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 304.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, pp. 134–135
- ^ a b Barta 1994, p. 283.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 284.
- ^ a b Barta 1994, p. 274.
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 128.
- ^ Barta 1994, pp. 259–260.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 271.
- ^ a b Pop 2005, p. 282.
- ^ a b c Barta 1994, p. 260.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 283.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 263.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, p. lix.
- ^ a b c Pop 2005, p. 306.
- ^ a b c Barta 1994, p. 294.
- ^ a b Pop 2005, p. 275.
- ^ Klepper 2002, p. 69.
- ^ Pop 1999, p. 73.
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 143.
- ^ Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. 91, 130, 181.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 277–278.
- ^ a b c d Pop 2005, p. 278.
- ^ a b Treptow et al. 1997, p. 130.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 278–279.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 306–307.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 297–298.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 296–297.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, pp. 143–144.
- ^ a b c Treptow et al. 1997, p. 144.
- ^ a b c d e Pop 2005, p. 307.
- ^ a b Georgescu 1991, p. 30.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 308–309.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, pp. 144–145.
- ^ Klepper 2002, p. 79.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 309.
- ^ a b c Treptow et al. 1997, p. 147.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 310.
- ^ Pop 2005, pp. 310–311.
- ^ Barta 1994, p. 296.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, p. 148.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, pp. 149–150.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, p. 150.
- ^ a b c Pop 2005, p. 312.
- ^ Treptow et al. 1997, pp. 150–151.
- ^ a b c Treptow et al. 1997, p. 151.
- ^ Pop 2005, p. 313.
- ^ Klepper 2002, p. 84.
- ^ Boia 1997, p. 39.
- ^ Klepper 2002, pp. 84–85.
- ^ a b c Klepper 2002, p. 89.
References
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- Sălăgean, Tudor (2005). "Romanian Society in the Early Middle Ages (9th–14th Centuries AD)". In Pop, Ioan-Aurel; Bolovan, Ioan (eds.). History of Romania: Compendium. Romanian Cultural Institute (Center for Transylvanian Studies). pp. 133–207. ISBN 978-973-7784-12-4.
- Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97290-4.
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- Treptow, Kurt W.; Popa, Marcel (1996). Historical Dictionary of Romania. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-3179-1.
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- Vásáry, István (2005). Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83756-1.
Further reading
- Castellan, Georges (1989). A History of the Romanians. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-88033-154-2.
- Durandin, Catherine (1995). Historie des Roumains (The History of the Romanians). Librairie Artheme Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-59425-5.
External links
- Köpeczi, Béla; Makkai, László; Mócsy, András; Szász, Zoltán; Barta, Gábor. "History of Transylvania".
- Nicolae, Adrian. "Cum au uitat românii un mileniu de istorie I"
- Nicolae, Adrian. "Cum au uitat românii un mileniu de istorie II"
- Samuelson, James (1882). "Roumania: Past and Present"