Runes
Runic ᚱᚢᚾᛁᚲ | ||
---|---|---|
Script type | Alphabet
| |
Time period | Unicode range | U+16A0–U+16FF[2] |
History of the alphabet | ||
---|---|---|
|
||
|
||
A rune is a
The earliest secure runic inscriptions date from around AD 150, with a potentially earlier inscription dating to AD 50 and
The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark (c. AD 150–800), the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (400–1100), and the Younger Futhark (800–1100). The Younger Futhark is divided further into the long-branch runes (also called Danish, although they were also used in Norway, Sweden, and Frisia); short-branch, or Rök, runes (also called Swedish–Norwegian, although they were also used in Denmark); and the stavlösa, or Hälsinge, runes (staveless runes). The Younger Futhark developed further into the medieval runes (1100–1500), and the Dalecarlian runes (c. 1500–1800).
The exact development of the early runic alphabet remains unclear but the script ultimately stems from the
The process of transmission of the script is unknown. The oldest clear inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany. A "West Germanic hypothesis" suggests transmission via Elbe Germanic groups, while a "Gothic hypothesis" presumes transmission via East Germanic expansion. Runes continue to be used in a wide variety of ways in modern popular culture.
Name
Etymology
The name stems from a
The term is related to
Related terms
In early Germanic, a rune could also be referred to as *rūna-stabaz, a compound of *rūnō and *stabaz ('staff; letter'). It is attested in Old Norse rúna-stafr, Old English rún-stæf, and Old High German rūn-stab.[10] Other Germanic terms derived from *rūnō include *runōn ('counsellor'), *rūnjan and *ga-rūnjan ('secret, mystery'), *raunō ('trial, inquiry, experiment'), *hugi-rūnō ('secret of the mind, magical rune'), and *halja-rūnō ('witch, sorceress'; literally '[possessor of the] Hel-secret').[11] It is also often part of personal names, including Gothic Runilo (𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌹𐌻𐍉), Frankish Rúnfrid, Old Norse Alfrún, Dagrún, Guðrún, Sigrún, Ǫlrún, Old English Ælfrún, and Lombardic Goderūna.[9]
The Finnish word runo, meaning 'poem', is an early borrowing from Proto-Germanic,[12] and the source of the term for rune, riimukirjain, meaning 'scratched letter'.[13] The root may also be found in the Baltic languages, where Lithuanian runoti means both 'to cut (with a knife)' and 'to speak'.[14]
The Old English form rún survived into the early modern period as roun, which is now obsolete. The modern English rune is a later formation that is partly derived from Late Latin runa, Old Norse rún, and Danish rune.[6]
History and use
The runes were in use among the
No distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present phonologically in the spoken languages of the time. Similarly, there are no signs for labiovelars in the Elder Futhark (such signs were introduced in both the Anglo-Saxon futhorc and the Gothic alphabet as variants of p; see peorð.)
Origins
The formation of the Elder Futhark was complete by the early 5th century, with the Kylver Stone being the first evidence of the futhark ordering as well as of the p rune.
Specifically, the
The angular shapes of the runes are shared with most contemporary alphabets of the period that were used for carving in wood or stone. There are no horizontal strokes: when carving a message on a flat staff or stick, it would be along the grain, thus both less legible and more likely to split the wood.[22] This characteristic is also shared by other alphabets, such as the early form of the Latin alphabet used for the Duenos inscription, but it is not universal, especially among early runic inscriptions, which frequently have variant rune shapes, including horizontal strokes. Runic manuscripts (that is written rather than carved runes, such as Codex Runicus) also show horizontal strokes.
The "
The Meldorf fibula and Tacitus's Germania
With the potential exception of the Meldorf fibula, a possible runic inscription found in Schleswig-Holstein dating to around 50 AD, the earliest reference to runes (and runic divination) may occur in Roman Senator Tacitus's ethnographic Germania.[29] Dating from around 98 CE, Tacitus describes the Germanic peoples as utilizing a divination practice involving rune-like inscriptions:
For divination and casting lots they have the highest possible regard. Their procedure for casting lots is uniform: They break off the branch of a fruit tree and slice into strips; they mark these by certain signs and throw them, as random chance will have it, on to a white cloth. Then a state priest, if the consultation is a public one, or the father of the family, if it is private, prays to the gods and, gazing to the heavens, picks up three separate strips and reads their meaning from the marks scored on them. If the lots forbid an enterprise, there can be no further consultation about it that day; if they allow it, further confirmation by divination is required.[30]
As Victoria Symons summarizes, "If the inscriptions made on the lots that Tacitus refers to are understood to be letters, rather than other kinds of notations or symbols, then they would necessarily have been runes, since no other writing system was available to Germanic tribes at this time."[29]
Early inscriptions
Runic inscriptions from the 400-year period 150–550 AD are described as "Period I". These inscriptions are generally in
Artifacts such as spear heads or shield mounts have been found that bear runic marking that may be dated to 200 AD, as evidenced by artifacts found across northern Europe in
Magical or divinatory use
The stanza 157 of Hávamál attribute to runes the power to bring that which is dead back to life. In this stanza, Odin recounts a spell:
Þat kann ek it tolfta, |
I know a twelfth one |
The earliest runic inscriptions found on artifacts give the name of either the craftsman or the proprietor, or sometimes, remain a linguistic mystery. Due to this, it is possible that the early runes were not used so much as a simple writing system, but rather as
Haidzruno runu, falahak haidera, ginnarunaz. Arageu haeramalausz uti az. Weladaude, sa'z þat barutz. Uþarba spa.
I, master of the runes(?) conceal here runes of power. Incessantly (plagued by) maleficence, (doomed to) insidious death (is) he who breaks this (monument). I prophesy destruction / prophecy of destruction.[33]
The same curse and use of the word, rune, is also found on the Stentoften Runestone. There also are some inscriptions suggesting a medieval belief in the magical significance of runes, such as the Franks Casket (AD 700) panel.
Charm words, such as auja, laþu, laukaʀ, and most commonly,
Nevertheless, it has proven difficult to find unambiguous traces of runic "oracles": although
The first source, Tacitus's Germania,[36] describes "signs" chosen in groups of three and cut from "a nut-bearing tree", although the runes do not seem to have been in use at the time of Tacitus' writings. A second source is the Ynglinga saga, where Granmar, the king of Södermanland, goes to Uppsala for the blót. There, the "chips" fell in a way that said that he would not live long (Féll honum þá svo spánn sem hann mundi eigi lengi lifa). These "chips", however, are easily explainable as a blótspánn (sacrificial chip), which was "marked, possibly with sacrificial blood, shaken, and thrown down like dice, and their positive or negative significance then decided."[37][page needed]
The third source is Rimbert's Vita Ansgari, where there are three accounts of what some believe to be the use of runes for divination, but Rimbert calls it "drawing lots". One of these accounts is the description of how a renegade Swedish king, Anund Uppsale, first brings a Danish fleet to Birka, but then changes his mind and asks the Danes to "draw lots". According to the story, this "drawing of lots" was quite informative, telling them that attacking Birka would bring bad luck and that they should attack a Slavic town instead. The tool in the "drawing of lots", however, is easily explainable as a hlautlein (lot-twig), which according to Foote and Wilson[38] would be used in the same manner as a blótspánn.
The lack of extensive knowledge on historical use of the runes has not stopped modern authors from extrapolating entire systems of divination from what few specifics exist, usually loosely based on the reconstructed names of the runes and additional outside influence.
A recent study of runic magic suggests that runes were used to create magical objects such as amulets,[39][page needed] but not in a way that would indicate that runic writing was any more inherently magical, than were other writing systems such as Latin or Greek.
Medieval use
As
Some later runic finds are on monuments (runestones), which often contain solemn inscriptions about people who died or performed great deeds. For a long time it was presumed that this kind of grand inscription was the primary use of runes, and that their use was associated with a certain societal class of rune carvers.
In the mid-1950s, however, approximately 670 inscriptions, known as the
In the later Middle Ages, runes also were used in the clog almanacs (sometimes called Runic staff, Prim, or Scandinavian calendar) of Sweden and Estonia. The authenticity of some monuments bearing Runic inscriptions found in Northern America is disputed; most of them have been dated to modern times.
Runes in Eddic poetry
In
Þat er þá reynt, |
That is now proved, |
The poem Hávamál explains that the originator of the runes was the major deity, Odin. Stanza 138 describes how Odin received the runes through self-sacrifice:
Veit ek at ek hekk vindga meiði a |
I know that I hung on a windy tree nine long nights,wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin, myself to myself, on that tree of which no man knows from where its roots run.[44] |
In stanza 139, Odin continues:
Við hleifi mik seldo ne viþ hornigi, |
No bread did they give me nor a drink from a horn, |
In the Poetic Edda poem
Runic alphabets
Elder Futhark (2nd to 8th centuries)
The Elder Futhark, used for writing
Most probably each rune had a name, chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. The names are, however, not directly attested for the Elder Futhark themselves.
Rune | UCS
|
Trans. | IPA | Proto-Germanic name
|
Meaning |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ᚠ
|
f | /ɸ/, /f/ | *fehu | "cattle; wealth" | |
ᚢ
|
u | /u(ː)/ | ?*ūruz | "aurochs", Wild ox (or *ûram "water/slag"?) | |
ᚦ
|
þ | /θ/, /ð/ | ?*þurisaz
|
"Thurs" (see Jötunn) or *þunraz ("the god Thunraz") | |
ᚨ
|
a | /a(ː)/ | *ansuz
|
"god" | |
ᚱ
|
r | /r/ | *raidō | "ride, journey" | |
ᚲ
|
k (c) | /k/ | ?*kaunan | "ulcer"? (or *kenaz "torch"?) | |
ᚷ
|
g | /ɡ/ | *gebō | "gift" | |
ᚹ
|
w | /w/ | *wunjō
|
"joy" | |
ᚺ ᚻ
|
h | /h/ | *hagalaz | "hail" (the precipitation) | |
ᚾ
|
n | /n/ | *naudiz | "need" | |
ᛁ
|
i | /i(ː)/ | *īsaz | "ice" | |
ᛃ
|
j | /j/ | *jēra- | "year, good year, harvest" | |
ᛇ
|
ï (æ) | /æː/[46] | *ī(h)waz
|
"yew-tree" | |
ᛈ
|
p | /p/ | ?*perþ-
|
meaning unknown; possibly "pear-tree". | |
ᛉ
|
z | /z/ | ?*algiz | "elk" (or "protection, defence"[47]) | |
ᛊ ᛋ
|
s | /s/ | *sōwilō
|
"sun" | |
ᛏ
|
t | /t/ | *tīwaz
|
"the god Tiwaz "
| |
ᛒ
|
b | /b/ | *berkanan | " birch "
| |
ᛖ
|
e | /e(ː)/ | *ehwaz | "horse" | |
ᛗ
|
m | /m/ | *mannaz
|
"man" | |
ᛚ
|
l | /l/ | *laguz | "water, lake" (or possibly *laukaz "leek") | |
ᛜ
|
ŋ
|
/ŋ/ | *ingwaz
|
"the god Ingwaz" | |
ᛞ
|
d | /d/ | *dagaz | "day" | |
ᛟ
|
o | /o(ː)/ | *ōþila-/*ōþala-
|
"heritage, estate, possession" |
Anglo-Saxon runes (5th to 11th centuries)
The Anglo-Saxon runes, also known as the futhorc (sometimes written fuþorc), are an extended alphabet, consisting of 29, and later 33, characters. It was probably used from the 5th century onwards. There are competing theories as to the origins of the Anglo-Saxon (also called Anglo-Frisian) Futhorc. One theory proposes that it was developed in
The Anglo-Saxon rune poem gives the following characters and names: ᚠ feoh, ᚢ ur, ᚦ þorn, ᚩ os, ᚱ rad, ᚳ cen, ᚷ gyfu, ᚹ ƿynn, ᚻ hægl, ᚾ nyd, ᛁ is, ᛄ ger, ᛇ eoh, ᛈ peorð, ᛉ eolh, ᛋ sigel, ᛏ tir, ᛒ beorc, ᛖ eh, ᛗ mann, ᛚ lagu, ᛝ ing, ᛟ œthel, ᛞ dæg, ᚪ ac, ᚫ æsc, ᚣ yr, ᛡ ior, ᛠ ear.
Extra runes attested to outside of the rune poem include ᛢ cweorð, ᛣ calc, ᚸ gar, and ᛥ stan. Some of these additional letters have only been found in manuscripts. Feoh, þorn, and sigel stood for [f], [θ], and [s] in most environments, but voiced to [v], [ð], and [z] between vowels or voiced consonants. Gyfu and wynn stood for the letters yogh and wynn, which became [g] and [w] in Middle English.
"Marcomannic runes" (8th to 9th centuries)
A runic alphabet consisting of a mixture of Elder Futhark with Anglo-Saxon futhorc is recorded in a treatise called De Inventione Litterarum, ascribed to
Wilhelm Grimm discussed these runes in 1821.[48]
Younger Futhark (9th to 11th centuries)
The Younger Futhark, also called Scandinavian Futhark, is a reduced form of the
Medieval runes (12th to 15th centuries)
In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign for each phoneme of the
Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions preserved today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in
Dalecarlian runes (16th to 19th centuries)
According to Carl-Gustav Werner, "In the isolated province of
Differences from Roman script
While Roman script would ultimately replace runes in most contexts, it differed significantly from runic script. For example, on the differences between the use of Anglo-Saxon runes and the Latin script that would come to replace them, runologist Victoria Symons says:
As well as being distinguished from the roman alphabet in visual appearance and letter order, the fuþorc is further set apart by the fact that, unlike their roman counterparts, runic letters are often associated not only with sound values but also with names. These names are often nouns and, in almost all instances, they begin with the sound value represented by the associated letter. ... The fact that each rune represents [both] a sound value and a word gives this writing system a multivalent quality that further distinguishes it from roman script. A roman letter simply represents its sound value. When used, for example, for the purpose of pagination, such letters can assume added significance, but this is localised to the context of an individual manuscript. Runic letters, on the other hand, are inherently multivalent; they can, and often do, represent several different kinds of information simultaneously. This aspect of runic letters is one that is frequently employed and exploited by writers and scribes who include them in their manuscripts.[53]
Use as ideographs (Begriffsrunen)
In addition to their historic use as letters in the runic alphabets, runes were also used to represent their names (
Examples of Begriffsrunen (or potential Begriffsrunen) include the following:
Inscription | Date | Script | Language | Rune | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lindholm amulet | 2nd to 4th centuries | Elder Futhark | Proto-Norse
|
Several different runes | In this inscription, several runes repeat in a sentence to form an unknown meaning. Various scholars have proposed that these runes represent repeated Begriffsrunen. |
Ring of Pietroassa | 250–400 AD | Elder Futhark | Gothic | Odal (rune)
|
This object was cut by thieves, damaging one of the runes. The identity of this rune was debated by scholars until a photograph of it was republished that, according to runologist Bernard Mees, clearly indicates it to have been Odal (rune).[55]
|
Stentoften Runestone | 500–700 AD | Elder Futhark | Proto-Norse
|
Jēran | This inscription is commonly cited as containing a Begriffsrune.[54] |
In addition to the instances above, several different runes occur as ideographs in Old English and Old Norse manuscripts (featuring Anglo-Saxon runes and Younger Futhark runes respectively). Runologist Thomas Birkett summarizes these numerous instances as follows:
The maðr rune is found regularly in Icelandic manuscripts, the fé rune somewhat less frequently, whilst in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts the runes mon, dæg, wynn and eþel are all used on occasion. These are some of the most functional of the rune names, occurring relatively often in written language, unlike the elusive peorð, for example, which would be of little or no use as an abbreviation because of its rarity. The practicality of using an abbreviation for a familiar noun such as 'man' is demonstrated clearly in the Old Norse poem Hávamál, where the maðr rune is used a total of forty-five times, saving a significant amount of space and effort (Codex Regius: 5–14)[56]
Academic study
The modern study of runes was initiated during the Renaissance, by
Body of inscriptions
The largest group of surviving Runic inscription are
Modern use
Runic alphabets have seen numerous uses since the 18th-century
Esotericism
Germanic mysticism and Nazi Germany
The pioneer of the
Modern paganism and esotericism
Runes are popular in
The Uthark theory originally was proposed as a scholarly hypothesis by Sigurd Agrell in 1932. In 2002, Swedish esotericist Thomas Karlsson popularized this "Uthark" runic row, which he refers to as, the "night side of the runes", in the context of modern occultism.[citation needed]
Bluetooth
The Bluetooth logo is the combination of two runes of the Younger Futhark, ᚼ hagall and ᛒ bjarkan, equivalent to the letters H and B, that are the initials of Harald “Bluetooth” Gormsson's name (Bluetooth in English), who was a king of Denmark from the Viking Age.[citation needed]
Fantasy Literature
In
Video, board and role-playing games
Runes feature extensively in many video games that incorporate themes from early Germanic cultures, including Hellblade: Senua's Sacrifice, Jøtun, Northgard and God of War. They are used for a range of purposes including as names, symbols, decoration and on runestones that provide information about Nordic mythology and background for the game's narrative.[59][60][61]
The 1992 video game
Unicode
Runic alphabets were added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0.
The
The block as of Unicode 3.0 contained 81 symbols: 75 runic letters (U+16A0–U+16EA), 3 punctuation marks (Runic Single Punctuation U+16EB ᛫, Runic Multiple Punctuation U+16EC ᛬ and Runic Cross Punctuation U+16ED ᛭), and three runic symbols that are used in early modern
Runic[1][2] Official Unicode Consortium code chart (PDF) | ||||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | A | B | C | D | E | F | |
U+16Ax | ᚠ | ᚡ | ᚢ | ᚣ | ᚤ | ᚥ | ᚦ | ᚧ | ᚨ | ᚩ | ᚪ | ᚫ | ᚬ | ᚭ | ᚮ | ᚯ |
U+16Bx | ᚰ | ᚱ | ᚲ | ᚳ | ᚴ | ᚵ | ᚶ | ᚷ | ᚸ | ᚹ | ᚺ | ᚻ | ᚼ | ᚽ | ᚾ | ᚿ |
U+16Cx | ᛀ | ᛁ | ᛂ | ᛃ | ᛄ | ᛅ | ᛆ | ᛇ | ᛈ | ᛉ | ᛊ | ᛋ | ᛌ | ᛍ | ᛎ | ᛏ |
U+16Dx | ᛐ | ᛑ | ᛒ | ᛓ | ᛔ | ᛕ | ᛖ | ᛗ | ᛘ | ᛙ | ᛚ | ᛛ | ᛜ | ᛝ | ᛞ | ᛟ |
U+16Ex | ᛠ | ᛡ | ᛢ | ᛣ | ᛤ | ᛥ | ᛦ | ᛧ | ᛨ | ᛩ | ᛪ | ᛫ | ᛬ | ᛭ | ᛮ | ᛯ |
U+16Fx | ᛰ | ᛱ | ᛲ | ᛳ | ᛴ | ᛵ | ᛶ | ᛷ | ᛸ | |||||||
Notes |
See also
- Bautil
- Gothic runic inscriptions
- Etruscan alphabet
- List of runestones
- Pentadic numerals – Runic notation for presenting numbers
- Ogham
- Runiform (disambiguation), various scripts having a "rune-like" appearance
- Runic magic
- Sveriges runinskrifter
- Letter symbolism
Footnotes
- Vimose, Funen, Denmark.[15] The inscription reads harja; a disputed candidate for a 1st-century inscription is on the Meldorf fibula in southern Jutland.
- ^ Inscriptions such as wagnija, niþijo, and harija are supposed to represent tribe names, tentatively proposed to be Vangiones, the Nidensis, and the Harii tribes located in the Rhineland.[23] Since names ending in -io reflect Germanic morphology representing the Latin ending -ius, and the suffix -inius was reflected by Germanic -inio-,[24][25] the question of the problematic ending -ijo in masculine Proto-Norse would be resolved by assuming Roman (Rhineland) influences, while "the awkward ending -a of laguþewa[26] may be solved by accepting the fact that the name may indeed be West Germanic".[23]
- Gallehus horns inscription.[27]
- ^ The division between Northwest Germanic and Proto-Norse is somewhat arbitrary.[28]
References
- ^ Himelfarb, Elizabeth J. "First Alphabet Found in Egypt", Archaeology 53, Issue 1 (January/February 2000): 21.
- ^ Runic (PDF) (chart), Unicode, archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-10-07, retrieved 2018-03-24.
- ISBN 1-84383-186-4.
- ^ a b c Koch 2020, p. 137.
- ^ de Vries 1962, pp. 453–454; Orel 2003, p. 310; Koch 2020, p. 137
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary Online, s.v. † roun, n. and rune, n.2.
- ^ ISBN 9789004173361.
- ISBN 9782877723695.
- ^ a b de Vries 1962, pp. 453–454.
- ^ Orel 2003, p. 310.
- ^ Orel 2003, pp. 155, 190, 310.
- ^ Häkkinen, Kaisa. Nykysuomen etymologinen sanakirja
- ^ Nykysuomen sanakirja: "riimu"
- ^ "Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language". LKZ. Archived from the original on 2017-08-11. Retrieved 2010-04-13.
- ^ Stoklund 2003, p. 173.
- ^ Mees 2000.
- ^ Odenstedt 1990.
- ^ Williams 1996.
- ^ Dictionary of the Middle Ages (under preparation). Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2007-06-23.
- ^ Markey 2001.
- ISBN 9780719055409. Archivedfrom the original on 2015-06-22. Retrieved 2015-06-22.
- .
- ^ a b Looijenga 1997.
- ^ Weisgerber 1968, pp. 135, 392ff.
- ^ Weisgerber 1966–1967, p. 207.
- ^ Syrett 1994, pp. 44ff.
- ^ Penzl & Hall 1994b, p. 186.
- ^ a b Antonsen 1965, p. 36.
- ^ a b Symons 2020: 5.
- ^ Mattingly 2009: 39.
- ^ a b "Hávamál", Norrøne Tekster og Kvad, Norway, archived from the original on 2007-05-08.
- ^ Larrington 1999, p. 37.
- ^ "DR 360", Rundata (entry) (2.0 for Windows ed.).
- ^ MacLeod & Mees 2006, pp. 100–01.
- ^ Page 2005, p. 31.
- ^ Tacitus, Cornelius (1942). "Germany and its Tribes, chapter 10". In Alfred John Church; William Jackson Brodribb; Lisa Cerrato (eds.). Complete Works of Tacitus (1999 Perseus ed.). New York: Random House. Archived from the original on 2020-08-03. Retrieved 2023-01-18.
- ^ Foote & Wilson 1970.
- ^ Foote & Wilson 1970, p. 401.
- ^ MacLeod & Mees 2006.
- ISBN 9789047421214. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
- ^ "Vg 63", Rundata (entry) (2.0 for Windows ed.).
- ^ "Vg 119", Rundata (entry) (2.0 for Windows ed.).
- ^ Larrington 1999, p. 25.
- ^ a b Larrington 1999, p. 34.
- ^ Page 2005, pp. 8, 15–16.
- ^ also rendered /ɛː/, see Proto-Germanic phonology.
- ^ Ralph Warren, Victor Elliott, Runes: an introduction, Manchester University Press ND, 1980, 51-53.
- ^ Grimm, William (1821), "18", Ueber deutsche Runen [Concerning German runes] (in German), pp. 149–59.
- ^ Jacobsen & Moltke 1942, p. vii.
- ^ Werner 2004, p. 20.
- ^ Werner 2004, p. 7.
- ^ Brix, Lise (May 21, 2015). "Isolated people in Sweden only stopped using runes 100 years ago". ScienceNordic. Archived from the original on July 19, 2019. Retrieved July 22, 2015.
- ^ Symons 2016, p. 6-7.
- ^ a b c See discussion in for example Düwel 2004: 123–124 and Looijenga 2003: 17.
- ^ MacLeod & Mees 2006: 173.
- ^ Birkett 2010: 1.
- ^ Looijenga 2003: 160.
- ISBN 9783110197051. Retrieved 2018-05-22.
- ^ Lysiane 2018, pp. 16, 20, 35–36.
- ^ Northgard.
- ^ Hakala 2020, p. 21.
Sources
- "Northgard – Balancing Patch 7 – July 2021 – Steam News". store.steampowered.com. 20 July 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2022.
- Antonsen, Elmer H. (1965). "On Defining Stages in Prehistoric Germanic". Language. 41 (1): 19–36. JSTOR 411849.
- Birkett, Thomas. 2010. "The alysendlecan rune: Runic abbreviations in their immediate literary context Archived 2021-08-29 at the Wayback Machine". Preprints to The 7th International Symposium on Runes and Runic Inscriptions, Oslo 2010 Archived 2021-08-29 at the Wayback Machine. Last accessed 29 August 2021. University of Oslo.
- ISBN 978-90-04-05436-3.
- Düwel, Klaus (2001). Runenkunde (in German). JB Metzler.
- Düwel, Klaus (2004). "Runic". In Read, Malcolm; Murdoch, Brian (eds.). Early Germanic Literature and Culture. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 121–147. ISBN 9781571131997.
- Foote, P. G.; Wilson, D. M. (1970). The Viking Achievement. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. p. 401. ISBN 978-0-283-97926-2.
- Jacobsen, Lis; Moltke, Erik (1942). Danmarks Runeindskrifter. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaards.
- ISBN 9781907029325. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2021-11-25. Retrieved 2021-12-07.
- Larrington, Carolyne (1999). The Poetic Edda. ISBN 978-0-19-283946-6.
- Looijenga, Tineke (2003). Texts and Contexts of the Oldest Runic Inscriptions. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12396-0.
- Looijenga, JH (1997). Runes Around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700 (Thesis). Groningen University. Archived from the original on 2006-07-28. Retrieved 2006-02-06.
- Lysiane, Lasausse (2018). "Norse mythology in video games : part of immanent Nordic regional branding". University of Helsinki.
- MacLeod, Mindy; Mees, Bernard (2006). Runic Amulets and Magic Objects. Woodbridge, UK; Rochester, NY: ISBN 978-1-84383-205-8. Archivedfrom the original on 2020-09-19. Retrieved 2020-09-12.
- Markey, TL (2001). "A Tale of the Two Helmets: Negau A and B". Journal of Indo-European Studies. 29: 69–172.
- Mees, Bernard (2000). "The North Etruscan Thesis of the Origin of the Runes". Arkiv för Nordisk Filologi. 115: 33–82.
- Odenstedt, Bengt (1990). On the Origin and Early History of the Runic Script. Uppsala, Sweden: Gustav Adolfs akademien. ISBN 978-91-85352-20-3.
- ISBN 978-90-04-12875-0.
- ISBN 978-0-7141-8065-6.
- Hakala, Pyry (2020). "Modern Trends in God of War". Tampere University.
- Penzl, Herbert; Hall, Margaret Austin (Mar 1994a). "The Cambridge history of the English language, vol. I: the beginnings to 1066". Language (review). 70 (1): 185–89. JSTOR 416753.
- Penzl, Herbert; Hall, Margaret Austin (1994b). Englisch: Eine Sprachgeschichte nach Texten von 350 bis 1992 : vom Nordisch-Westgermanischen zum Neuenglischen. Germanistische Lehrbuchsammlung: Literatur. Vol. 82. Lang. ISBN 978-3-906751-79-5.
- Stoklund, M. (2003). "The first runes – the literary language of the Germani". The Spoils of Victory – the North in the Shadow of the Roman Empire. Nationalmuseet.
- Symons, Victoria (2016). Runes and Roman Letters in Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts. De Gruyter.
- Syrett, Martin (1994). The Unaccented Vowels of Proto-Norse. North-Western European Language Evolution. Vol. 11. John Benjamins. ISBN 978-87-7838-049-4.
- Weisgerber, Johannes Leo (1966–1967). "Frühgeschichtliche Sprachbewegungen im Kölner Raum (mit 8 Karten)". Rheinische Vierteljahrsblätter (in German).
- Weisgerber, Johannes Leo (1968). Die Namen der Ubier (in German). Cologne: Opladen.
- Werner, Carl-Gustav (2004). The Allrunes Font and Package (PDF). The Comprehensive Tex Archive Network. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-20. Retrieved 2006-06-21.
- Williams, Henrik (1996). "The Origin of the Runes". Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik. 45: 211–18. .
External links
- Nytt om Runer (runology journal), NO: UIO
- Bibliography of Runic Scholarship, Galinn grund, archived from the original on 2008-09-05
- Gamla Runinskrifter, SE: Christer hamp
- Gosse, Edmund William (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). pp. 852–853. .
- Smith, Nicole; Beale, Gareth; Richards, Julian; Scholma-Mason, Nela (2018), "Maeshowe: The Application of RTI to Norse Runes (Data Paper)", Internet Archaeology (47), S2CID 165773006
- Old Norse Online by Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the Linguistics Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin, contains a lesson on runic inscriptions
- Scratching runes was not much different from spraying tags, Frisia Coast Trail (2023)