Russia

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Coordinates: 66°N 94°E / 66°N 94°E / 66; 94
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Russian Federation
Российская Федерация (Russian)
Anthem: 
Государственный гимн Российской Федерации
Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii
"
State Anthem of the Russian Federation"
Recognized territory of Russia is shown in dark green; claimed but internationally unrecognized territory is shown in light green.[a]
Ethnic groups
(2021; including Russia and Crimea)[5]
Religion
(2024)[6][7]
  • 21.2%
    Russian
GovernmentFederal semi-presidential republic[9] under an authoritarian[10][11] dictatorship[12][13]
• President
Vladimir Putin
Mikhail Mishustin
LegislatureFederal Assembly
• Upper house
Federation Council
• Lower house
State Duma
Formation
882
1157
1282
16 January 1547
2 November 1721
15 March 1917
30 December 1922
12 June 1990
12 December 1991
12 December 1993
8 December 1999
Area
• Total
17,098,246 km2 (6,601,670 sq mi)[15] (within internationally recognised borders)
• Water (%)
13[14] (including swamps)
Population
• 2024 estimate
  • Neutral decrease 146,150,789[16]
  • (including Crimea)[17]
  • Neutral decrease 143,679,916
  • (excluding Crimea)
(
₽) (RUB)
Time zoneUTC+2 to +12
Drives onright
Calling code+7
ISO 3166 codeRU
Internet TLD

Russia,[b] or the Russian Federation,[c] is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world by area, extending across eleven time zones and sharing land borders with fourteen countries.[d] It is the world's ninth-most populous country and Europe's most populous country. Russia is a highly urbanised country including 16 population centres with over a million inhabitants. Its capital and largest city is Moscow. Saint Petersburg is Russia's second-largest city and its cultural capital.

The

ideological dominance and international influence. The Soviet era of the 20th century saw some of the most significant Russian technological achievements, including the first human-made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space
.

In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. A new constitution was adopted, which established a federal semi-presidential system. Since the turn of the century, Russia's political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin, under whom the country has experienced democratic backsliding and a shift towards authoritarianism. Russia has been militarily involved in a number of conflicts in former Soviet states and other countries, including its war with Georgia in 2008 and its war with Ukraine since 2014, which has involved the internationally unrecognised annexations of Ukrainian territory including Crimea in 2014 and four other regions in 2022 during an ongoing invasion.

Russia is a

its vast mineral and energy resources; the world's second-largest for oil production and natural gas production. Russia is home to 30 UNESCO World Heritage Sites
.

Etymology

Main article: Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia

According to the

Medieval Latin: Russia, used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from Russi, 'the Russians' and the suffix -ia.[22][23] In modern historiography, this state is usually denoted as Kievan Rus' after its capital city.[24] Another Medieval Latin name for Rus' was Ruthenia.[25]

In Russian, the current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the

Byzantine Greek name for Rus', Ρωσία (Rosía).[26] A new form of the name Rus', Росия (Rosiya), was borrowed from the Greek term and first attested in 1387.[27][failed verification] The name Rossiia appeared in Russian sources in the late 15th century, but until the end of the 17th century the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as Rus', the Russian land (Russkaia zemlia), or the Muscovite state (Moskovskoe gosudarstvo), among other variations.[28][29][30] In 1721, Peter the Great changed the name of the state from Tsardom of Russia (Russian: Русское царство, romanized: Russkoye tsarstvo) or Tsardom of Muscovy (Russian: Московское царство, romanized: Moskovskoye tsarstvo)[31][32] to Russian Empire (Rossiiskaia imperiia).[28][30]

There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjective русский, russkiy refers to ethnic Russians. The adjective российский, rossiiskiy denotes Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun россиянин, rossiianyn, "Russian" in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.[29][33]

According to the

Rurikid dynasty came from.[34] The Finnish word for Swedes, ruotsi, has the same origin.[35]
Later archeological studies mostly confirmed this theory.
better source needed
]

History

Main article: History of Russia

Early history

Further information:
Turkic expansion, and Prehistory of Siberia
See also: Proto-Indo-Europeans and Proto-Uralic homeland

The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the

archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.[40] Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.[41]

The first trace of an

Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.[46]

Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,[47] including the Afanasievo culture of southern Siberia

The

Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.[55]

In the 3rd to 4th centuries CE, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies,[56] was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars.[57] The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kyiv on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.[58] After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.[59]

The ancestors of

Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.[62][63]

Kievan Rus'

Main articles: Rus' Khaganate; Kievan Rus'; and List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine
Kievan Rus' after the Council of Liubech in 1097

The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of

Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar Khaganate,[64] and launched several military expeditions to Byzantium and Persia.[65][66]

In the 10th to 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of

Galicia-Volhynia in the south-west.[62] By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.[67] Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base,[67] leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.[62]

Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240,[68] as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242.[69]

Kievan Rus' finally fell to the

Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north. In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.[62]

Grand Duchy of Moscow

Main article:
Grand Duchy of Moscow
Trinity Sergius Lavra, before the Battle of Kulikovo, depicted in a painting by Ernst Lissner

The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the

Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,[72] gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands".[73][74] When the seat of the Metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[75] Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.[76]

Led by Prince

a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.[62] Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.[73]

Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.[73] Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th century.[77]

Tsardom of Russia

Main article: Tsardom of Russia
See also: Moscow, third Rome
Tsar of Russia
until his death in 1584.

In development of the

Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned the first tsar of Russia in 1547. The tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.[73] During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga,[78] and the Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the Ural Mountains.[79] However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[80] In 1572, an invading army of Crimean Tatars were thoroughly defeated in the crucial Battle of Molodi.[81]

Feodor Godunov's map of Russia, as published by Hessel Gerritsz in 1614

The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient

Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.[85]

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the

Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.[88]

Imperial Russia

Main article: Russian Empire
Expansion and territorial evolution of Russia from the coronation of Ivan IV to the death of Peter I

Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, on the Baltic Sea, Peter founded Saint Petersburg as Russia's new capital. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.[89] He was succeeded by Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by Peter II (1727–1730), and Anna. The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin.[90] However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.[91]

reach and colonise Alaska.[98] In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made.[99] In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.[100]

Great power and development of society, sciences and arts

Napoleon's retreat from Moscow by Albrecht Adam (1851)

During the

Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris.[101] Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.[102]

The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825.[103] At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.[104]

Great liberal reforms and capitalism

Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.[105] These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War.[106] During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.[107]

The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[108] The reign of his son Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.[109]

Constitutional monarchy and World War

Under last Russian emperor,

Revolution of 1905 was triggered by the humiliating failure of the Russo-Japanese War.[110] The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.[111]

Revolution and civil war

Main articles: Russian Revolution, Russian Civil War, and Dissolution of the Russian Empire
executed
by the Bolsheviks in 1918.

In 1914,

later executed during the Russian Civil War.[116] The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government,[117] and proclaimed the Russian Republic. On 19 January [O.S. 6 January], 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.[115]

An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the

anti-communist White movement and the Bolsheviks with its Red Army.[118] In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I; Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.[119]

Vladimir Lenin speaks in Moscow, 1920, with Leon Trotsky leaning against the podium.

The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-communist forces.[120] In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror.[121] By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.[122] Millions became White émigrés,[123] and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.[124]

Soviet Union

Main article: History of the Soviet Union
Location of the Russian SFSR (red) within the Soviet Union in 1936

Command economy and Soviet society

On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides

formed the Soviet Union, by joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian, Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian republics.[125] Eventually internal border changes and annexations during World War II created a union of 15 republics; the largest in size and population being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.[126]

Following

Socialism in One Country became the official line.[129] The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge.[130]

Stalinism and modernization

Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a

Soviet famine of 1932–1933; which killed 5.7[134] to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.[135] The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.[136]

World War II and United Nations

Main article: Soviet Union in World War II
Two teen girls assemble PPD-40 submachine guns during the siege of Leningrad in 1942
The Battle of Stalingrad, the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the German army.

The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of Poland,[137] in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany.[138] The Soviet Union later invaded Finland,[139] and occupied and annexed the Baltic states,[140] as well as parts of Romania.[141]: 91–95  On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union,[142] opening the Eastern Front, the largest theater of World War II.[143]: 7 

Eventually, some 5 million

starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" sought to fulfil Generalplan Ost.[145]: 175–186  Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow.[146] Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,[147] and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.[148] Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.[149] Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and captured Berlin in May 1945.[150] In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[151]

The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War.[152] The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council.[153]: 27  During the war, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million,[154] accounting for about half of all World War II casualties.[155]: 295  The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–1947.[156] However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a global superpower.[157]

Superpower and Cold War

Big Three" at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin

After World War II, according to the Potsdam Conference, the Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and the eastern regions of Austria.[158] Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states.[159] After becoming the world's second nuclear power,[160] the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance,[161] and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivalling United States and NATO.[162]

Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development

After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labour camps.[163] The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw.[164] At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.[165]

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial

cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1 crewed spacecraft on 12 April 1961.[167]

Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation

Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of

Soviet economy.[168] In 1979, after a communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War.[169] In May 1988, the Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.[170]

Perestroika, democratization and Russian sovereignty

Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and US President Ronald Reagan in Red Square during the Moscow Summit, 31 May 1988

From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.[171] This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.[172] Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.[173]

By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the

a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[177] On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.[178]

Independent Russian Federation

Main article:
History of Russia (1991–present)
Further information: Presidency of Boris Yeltsin, Russia under Vladimir Putin, and Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev

Transition to a market economy and political crises

Vladimir Putin takes the oath of office as president on his first inauguration, with Boris Yeltsin looking over, 2000.

The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including

death rate skyrocketed,[182][183] and millions plunged into poverty;[184] while extreme corruption,[185] as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.[186]

In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.[187]

Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilization

In December, a

Islamist insurrections.[189] From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.[190] Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.[e][191]

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts.[192] In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.[193] High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.[194]

Movement towards a modernized economy, political centralization and democratic backsliding

On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,[195] handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin.[196] Putin then won the 2000 presidential election,[197] and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the Second Chechen War.[198]

Putin won a

Russian economy and living standards improve significantly.[200] Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an authoritarian state.[201] In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was elected President for one term, to hold onto power despite legal term limits;[202] this period has been described as a "tandemocracy".[203]

Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine as of 30 September 2022 at the time their annexation was declared

Following a

occupies in Georgia.[204] It was the first European war of the 21st century.[205]

Invasion of Ukraine

In early 2014, following a pro-Western revolution in Ukraine, Russia annexed Crimea from neighbouring Ukraine after a disputed referendum on the status of Crimea was staged under Russian occupation.[206][207] The annexation generated an insurgency in the Donbas region of Ukraine, supported by Russian military intervention as part of an undeclared war against Ukraine.[208] Russian mercenaries and military forces, with the support of local separatist militias, waged a war in eastern Ukraine against the new Ukrainian government after the Russian government fostered anti-government and pro-Russian protests in the region,[209] although most residents had opposed secession from Ukraine.[210][211]

In a major escalation of the conflict, Russia launched a full-scale

expanded sanctions against Russia.[215]

Putin with Shoigu, Gerasimov, Belousov, Yevkurov and commanders of Russia's military districts on 15 May 2024

As a result, Russia was expelled from the

demographic crisis.[225]

In June 2023, the Wagner Group, a private military contractor fighting for Russia in Ukraine, declared an open rebellion against the Russian Ministry of Defense, capturing Rostov-on-Don, before beginning a march on Moscow. However, after negotiations between Wagner and the Belarusian government, the rebellion was called off.[226][227] The leader of the rebellion, Yevgeny Prigozhin, later died in a plane crash.[228]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Russia
Topographic map of Russia

Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.[229] It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia; and has the world's fourth-longest coastline, of over 37,653 km (23,396 mi).[f][231] Russia lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, extending some 9,000 km (5,600 mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000 km (1,600 to 2,500 mi) north to south.[232] Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,[g] and has the same surface area as Pluto.[233]

Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the

traditional boundary between Europe and Asia.[236] The lowest point in Russia and Europe, is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some 29 metres (95.1 ft) below sea level.[237]

Russia, as one of the world's only three countries

Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20 km (12.4 mi) from Hokkaido, Japan.[2]

Russia, home of over 100,000 rivers,

longest rivers.[245]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Russia
Köppen climate classification of Russia

The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[246] Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F),[239] and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.[246]

The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.[246] In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate.[246] The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.[247]

Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer; as spring and autumn are usually brief.

wildfires,[249] and thawing the country's large expanse of permafrost.[250]

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Russia
See also: List of ecoregions in Russia
Yugyd Va National Park in the Komi Republic is the largest national park in Europe.[236]

Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics.[251] About half of Russia's territory is forested,[9] and it has the world's largest area of forest,[252] which sequester some of the world's highest amounts of carbon dioxide.[252][253]

Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of

cyclostomata, and approximately 100–150,000 invertebrates (high endemism).[251][254] Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.[251]

Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.

biosphere reserves,[255] 64 national parks, and 101 nature reserves.[256] Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered intact forest; mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.[257] Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries; and the first ranked major nation globally.[258]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Russia
Prime Minister
A chart of the Russian political system

Russia, by constitution, is a

semi-presidential system, wherein the president is the head of state,[259] and the prime minister is the head of government.[9] It is structured as a multi-party representative democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:[260]

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.[264][i] Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). United Russia is the dominant political party in Russia, and has been described as "big tent" and the "party of power".[266][267] Under the administrations of Vladimir Putin, Russia has experienced democratic backsliding,[268][269] and has been described as an authoritarian dictatorship.[11][12][270] Putin's policies are generally referred to as Putinism.[271]

Political divisions

Main article: Political divisions of Russia

Russia, by 1993 constitution, is a symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation. Unlike the Soviet asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but no regions have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.[272]

The federal subjects[j] have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the Federal Assembly.[273] They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.[274] The federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.[275] Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.[276]

Federal subjects Governance
  46 oblasts
 The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.[277]
  22 republics
 Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.[278]
  9 krais
 For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.[279]
  4 autonomous okrugs
 Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.[280]
  3 federal cities
 Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as Sevastopol in Russian-occupied Ukraine).[281]
  1 autonomous oblast
 The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.[282]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Russia
Putin with G20 counterparts in Osaka, 2019

Russia had the world's fifth-largest diplomatic network in 2019. It maintains diplomatic relations with 190

CSTO,[291] the SCO,[292] and BRICS.[293]

Russia maintains close relations with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part of the Union State, a supranational confederation of the two states.[294] Serbia has been a historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.[295] India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era.[296] Russia wields influence across the geopolitically important South Caucasus and Central Asia; and the two regions have been described as Russia's "backyard".[297][298]

   Russia
   Countries on Russia's "Unfriendly countries list". The list includes countries that have imposed sanctions against Russia for its invasion of Ukraine.

In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance and international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. Military intervention in the

strengthened bilaterally and economically; due to shared political interests.[302] Turkey and Russia share a complex strategic, energy, and defence relationship.[303] Russia maintains cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.[304] Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the Arctic,[305] Asia-Pacific,[306] Africa,[307] the Middle East,[308] and Latin America.[309] According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, two-thirds of the world's population live in countries such as China or India that are neutral or leaning towards Russia.[310][311]

Military

Main article: Russian Armed Forces
Sukhoi Su-57, a fifth-generation fighter of the Russian Air Force[312]

The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the

Airborne Troops.[9] As of 2021, the military have around a million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fifth-largest, and about 2–20 million reserve personnel.[313][314] It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.[9]

Russia is among the five

defence industry, producing most of its own military equipment.[319]

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Russia
Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, anti-war protests broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.[320]

Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[321][322]

Since 2004,

censorship of mass media and internet.[332]

Muslims, especially

Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.[340] During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to those used in the Chechen Wars.[341][342] Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with laws adopted that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.[343]

Russia has introduced several restrictions on LGBT rights, including a 2020 ban on same-sex marriage and the designation of LGBT+ organisations such as the Russian LGBT Network as "foreign agents".[344][345]

Corruption

Main article: Corruption in Russia

Russia's political system has been variously described as a kleptocracy,[346] an oligarchy,[347] and a plutocracy.[348] It was the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2023, ranking 141th out of 180 countries.[349] Russia has a long history of corruption, which is seen as a significant problem.[350] It affects various sectors, including the economy,[351] business,[352] public administration,[353] law enforcement,[354] healthcare,[355][356] education,[357] and the military.[358]

Law and crime

Main articles: Law of Russia and Crime in Russia

The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the

Russian Criminal Code, are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.[359][360][361]

Russia has the world's second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, is ranked first in Europe and 32nd globally in the Global Organized Crime Index, and is among the countries with the highest number of people in prison.[362][363][364]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Russia
Further information: Economic history of the Russian Federation and Taxation in Russia
The Moscow International Business Centre in Moscow. The city has one of the world's largest urban economies.[365]

Russia has a

agricultural sector is the smallest, at less than 4% of total GDP.[370] Russia has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's eight-largest,[371] and a low official unemployment rate of 4.1%.[372]

Russia is the world's thirteenth-largest exporter and the 21st-largest importer.[373][374] It relies heavily on revenues from oil and gas-related taxes and export tariffs, which accounted for 45% of Russia's federal budget revenues in January 2022,[375] and up to 60% of its exports in 2019.[376] Russia has one of the lowest levels of external debt among major economies,[377] and had the fifth-largest foreign exchange reserves, valued at over $601 billion,[378] although half of that is frozen aboard, and a significant amount is believed to have been spent on the Ukrainian war. Inequality of household income and wealth is among the highest among developed countries,[379] and there are considerable regional disparities in economic development.[380][381]

After over a decade of post-Soviet rapid economic growth, backed by high oil prices and a surge in foreign exchange reserves and investment,

the resulting negative impact, the Russian government has stopped publishing a raft of economic data since April 2022.[385] Although Russia has maintained relative economic stability and even growth—driven primarily by high military spending, household consumption, and capital investment—economists suggest the sanctions will have a long-term effect over the Russian economy.[386][387][388]

Transport and energy

Main articles: Transport in Russia and Energy in Russia
The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to Vladivostok.[389]

Railway transport in Russia is mostly controlled by the state-run Russian Railways. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's third-longest, exceeding 87,000 km (54,100 mi).[390] As of 2019, Russia has the world's fifth-largest road network, with over 1.5 million km of roads,[391] although its road density is among the world's lowest, due in part to its vast land area.[392] Russia's inland waterways are the world's longest, totaling 102,000 km (63,380 mi).[393] Russia has over 900 airports,[394] ranking seventh in the world, of which the busiest is Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. Russia's largest port is the Port of Novorossiysk in Krasnodar Krai along the Black Sea.[395]

Russia was widely described

Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.[406]

In the mid-2000s, the share of the oil and gas sector in GDP was around 20%, and in 2013 it was 20–21% of GDP.[407] The share of oil and gas in Russia's exports (about 50%) and federal budget revenues (about 50%) is large, and the dynamics of Russia's GDP are highly dependent on oil and gas prices,[408] but the share in GDP is much less than 50%. According to the first such comprehensive assessment published by the Russian statistics agency Rosstat in 2021, the maximum total share of the oil and gas sector in Russia's GDP—including extraction, refining, transport, sale of oil and gas, all goods and services used, and all supporting activities—amounts to 19.2% in 2019 and 15.2% in 2020; this is comparable to the share of GDP in Norway and Kazakhstan, and much lower than the share of GDP in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.[409][410][411][412][413]

Russia is the world's fourth-largest electricity producer.[414] Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of all primary energy and 42% of electricity consumption.[415][416] Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's first nuclear power plant in 1954;[417] it remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in fast neutron reactors.[418] Russia is the world's fourth-largest nuclear energy producer, which accounts for one-fourth of total electricity generation.[416][419] Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.[418]

Russia ratified the Paris Agreement in 2019.[420] The country's greenhouse gas emissions are the world's fourth-largest.[421] Coal still accounts for nearly one-fifth of electricity generation (17.64%).[416] Russia is the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer as of 2022,[422] with hydro power also contributing to almost a fifth of total electricity generation (17.54%).[416] The use and development of other renewable energy resources remains negligible, as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for expanding these energy resources.[419]

Agriculture and fishery

Main articles: Agriculture in Russia and Fishing industry in Russia
Wheat in Tomsk Oblast, Siberia

Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.[423] It has the world's third-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is agricultural,[9] with an additional 7.4% being arable.[424] The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "breadbasket" of Europe.[425] More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits.[423] The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland.[423] Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat,[426][427] the largest producer of barley and buckwheat, among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, and the leading producer of fertilizer.[428]

Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.[429] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's sixth-largest fishing industry; capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.[430] It is home to the world's finest caviar, the beluga; and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.[423]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Russia
See also: Timeline of Russian innovation, List of Russian scientists, and List of Russian inventors
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artist

Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on

medicine, economy, literature and peace.[433] Russia ranked 51st in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 45th in 2021.[434][435]

Since the times of

Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.[438]

semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes.[441] Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology.[442] Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology.[443] Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning.[444] Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.[445]

Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems.[449] Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis.[450] George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.[451]

Space exploration

Mir, Russian space station that operated in LEO

Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.[452]
: 6–7, 333 

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial

spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.[454]

In 1957,

space exploration rover,[460] while Salyut 1 became the world's first space station.[461]

Russia had 172 active satellites in space in April 2022, the world's third-highest.[462] Between the final flight of the Space Shuttle program in 2011 and the 2020 SpaceX's first crewed mission, Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the ISS.[463] Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.[464]

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Russia
UNESCO World Heritage Site

According to the

Federal Agency for Tourism, the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.[466] Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 totaled $11.6 billion.[465] In 2019, travel and tourism accounted for about 4.8% of country's total GDP.[467] In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism declined precipitously in 2020, to just over 6.3 million foreign visitors.[468]

Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the

theme route of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus Mountains,[469] and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway.[470] Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.[471]

Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a bustling modern

Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.[474]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Russia, Russians, List of cities and towns in Russia, and List of cities and towns in Russia by population
Ethnic groups across Russia
Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over one million according to the 2010 census
Percentage of ethnic Russians by region according to the 2021 census

Russia had a population of 144.7 million in

urbanised, with two-thirds of the population living in towns and cities
,

Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its

Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the demographic crisis has deepened,[481] owing to reportedly high military fatalities and renewed emigration caused by Western mass-sanctions and boycotts.[482]

In 2022, the

the lowest in the world.[484] Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's oldest populations, with a median age of 40.3 years.[9]

Russia is a

Finno-Ugric and Germanic peoples.[488][489] According to the United Nations, Russia's immigrant population is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million;[490] most of which are from post-Soviet states, mainly from Central Asia.[491]

 
Largest cities or towns in Russia
2024 estimate[492]
Rank
Name
 Federal subject
Pop.
Rank
Name
 Federal subject
Pop.
Moscow
Moscow
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg 		1 Moscow Moscow 13,149,803 11 Rostov-on-Don Rostov Oblast 1,140,487 Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk
Yekaterinburg
Yekaterinburg
2 Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg 5,597,763 12 Krasnodar Krasnodar Krai 1,138,654
3 Novosibirsk Novosibirsk Oblast 1,633,851 13 Omsk Omsk Oblast 1,104,485
4 Yekaterinburg Sverdlovsk Oblast 1,536,183 14 Voronezh Voronezh Oblast 1,046,425
5 Kazan Tatarstan 1,318,604 15 Perm Perm Krai 1,026,908
6 Krasnoyarsk Krasnoyarsk Krai 1,205,473 16 Volgograd Volgograd Oblast 1,018,898
7 Nizhny Novgorod Nizhny Novgorod Oblast 1,204,985 17 Saratov Saratov Oblast 887,365
8 Chelyabinsk Chelyabinsk Oblast 1,177,058 18 Tyumen Tyumen Oblast 861,098
9 Ufa Bashkortostan 1,163,304 19 Tolyatti Samara Oblast 667,956
10 Samara Samara Oblast 1,158,952 20 Makhachkala Dagestan 622,091

Language

Main articles: Russian language and Languages of Russia
Minority languages across Russia
ethno-linguistically diverse.[493]

Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.[3] It is the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic language.[494] Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station,[495] as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[494]

Russia is a

establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.[499] However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages becoming endangered.[500][501]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Russia
Saint Basil's Cathedral in Moscow is the most iconic religious architecture of Russia.

Russia is constitutionally a

Eastern Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church,[503] which is legally recognised for its "special role" in the country's "history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture."[502] Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".[504][505]

Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority of

Siberian shamanism[510] and Tengrism, various Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism, and other faiths.[511][512] Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country;[513] notably, in 2017 the Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.[514]

In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the

Protestants—25% were believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims,[k] 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[503]

Education

Main article: Education in Russia
Moscow State University, the most prestigious educational institution in Russia[515]

Russia has an adult

literacy rate of 100%,[516] and has compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.[517] It grants free education to its citizens by constitution.[518] The Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education; while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.[517] Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia is among the world's most educated countries, and has the sixth-highest proportion of tertiary-level graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 62.1%.[519] It spent roughly 4.7% of its GDP on education in 2018.[520]

Russia's

pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[521] some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.[517] An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.[522]

Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:[518] first-degree courses usually take five years.[522] The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University.[523] There are ten highly prestigious federal universities across the country. Russia was the world's fifth-leading destination for international students in 2019, hosting roughly 300 thousand.[524]

Health

Main article: Healthcare in Russia
Metallurg, a Soviet-era sanatorium in Sochi[525]

Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens, through a compulsory state health insurance program.[526] The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.[527]

Russia spent 5.65% of its GDP on healthcare in 2019.[528] Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.[529] Russia has one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female,[9] due to its high male mortality rate.[530] In 2021, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth was 70.06 years (65.51 years for males and 74.51 years for females),[531] and it had a very low infant mortality rate (5 per 1,000 live births).[532]

The principal cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.

Smoking is another health issue in the country.[537] The country's high suicide rate, although on the decline,[538] remains a significant social issue.[539]

Culture

Main article:
Russian culture
The Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, at night

contributions to science and technology and space exploration.[547][548]

Russia is home to

Matryoshka dolls are considered a cultural icon of Russia.[552]

Holidays

Main article: Public holidays in Russia
The Scarlet Sails being celebrated along the Neva in Saint Petersburg

Russia has eight—public, patriotic, and religious—official holidays.[553] The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[554] Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.[555] International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that Moscow's flower vendors often see profits of "15 times" more than other holidays.[556] Spring and Labour Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[557]

Victory Day, which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated on 9 May as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square;[558] and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event.[559] Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union;[560] and Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the 1612 uprising which marked the end of the Polish occupation of Moscow.[561]

There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.[562] Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[563] Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.[564] Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.[565]

Art and architecture

Main articles:
Russian architecture, and List of Russian architects
Emperor of Russia
.

Early Russian painting is

Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known for Romantic historical canvases.[568][569] Ivan Aivazovsky, another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.[570]

In the 1860s, a group of critical

Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.[571] The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of symbolism; represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich.[572][573] The Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; and globally influential artists from this era were El Lissitzky,[574] Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, and Marc Chagall.[575]

The history of

Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.[580]

After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles. The 18th-century taste for

Russian Revival style.[583] In the early 20th century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.[584] Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were Art Nouveau,[585] Constructivism,[586] and Socialist Classicism.[587]

Music

Main article: Music of Russia
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893), in a 1893 painting by Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kuznetsov

Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.

Nikolay Rubinstein.[590] The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov,[588] Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, and later Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina,[591] Georgy Sviridov,[592] and Alfred Schnittke.[591]

During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,[591] and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.[593] Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.[591] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium,[594] DDT,[595] and Kino;[596] the latter's leader Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure.[597] Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.[598]

Literature and philosophy

Main articles: Russian literature and Russian philosophy
Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910), is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as War and Peace.[599]
Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), one of the great novelists of all time, whose masterpieces include Crime and Punishment[600]

Russian literature is considered to be among the world's most influential and developed.[540] It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed.[601] By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin.[602] From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.[603] Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.[604] Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet.[602]

The first great Russian novelist was

Aleksandr Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely.[602]

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and

Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov,[617] and Isaac Asimov; who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.[618] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps.[619]

fascist views, has been regarded as the "guru of geopolitics".[628]

Cuisine

See also: Russian cuisine
Kvass is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.

Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries. Crops of

golubtsy) usually filled with meat.[639] Salads include Olivier salad,[640] vinegret,[641] and dressed herring.[642]

Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,[643] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century.[644] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[645] while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[646] Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[647] Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.[648]

Mass media and cinema

Main articles:
Media of Russia and Cinema of Russia
Ostankino Tower in Moscow, the tallest freestanding structure in Europe[649]

There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax.[650] Television is the most popular medium in Russia.[651] Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, and Russkoye Radio. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, Argumenty i Fakty, Komsomolskaya Pravda, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, and Moskovskij Komsomolets are popular. State-run Channel One and Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while RT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.[651] Russia has the largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.[652]

Russian and later

greatest film of all time at the Brussels World's Fair in 1958.[653][654] Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.[655][656] Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography.[657] Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a large effect on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[658] Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.[546]

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.

cosmonauts before any trip into space.[661] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.[662]

Sports

Main article: Sport in Russia
world No. 1 tennis player, was the world's highest-paid female athlete for 11 consecutive years.[663]

Euro 2008.[669] Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,[670] and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[671] However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.[672]

Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007,[674] and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams.[675] The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park, until its termination following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.[676][677]

Historically,

1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[682] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[683][684] However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to doping violations, which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.[685]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in 2014, remains internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine.[1] Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were annexed—though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost Kuril Islands have been the subject of a territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.[2]
  2. ^ Russian: Россия, romanized: Rossiya, [rɐˈsʲijə]
  3. ^ Russian: Российская Федерация, romanized: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]
  4. partially recognised breakaway states of South Ossetia and Abkhazia
    that it occupies in Georgia.
  5. Russian apartment bombings, the Moscow theater hostage crisis, and the Beslan school siege
  6. ^ Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[230]
  7. ^ Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and Europe; although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.
  8. ^ Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, to its west: the Baltic Sea, to its north: the Barents Sea (White Sea, Pechora Sea), the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea, to its northeast: the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea, and to its southeast: the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan.
  9. ^ In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.[265]
  10. ^ Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol since the annexation of Crimea in 2014,[1] and territories set up following the Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts in 2022.
  11. ^ The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely Chechnya and Ingushetia, which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.[503]

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