Russia–Syria relations
Russia |
Syria |
---|---|
Diplomatic mission | |
Embassy of Russia, Damascus | Embassy of Syria, Moscow |
Russia–Syria relations are the
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and Syria were established in July 1944, and an agreement was signed in February 1946 ensuring Soviet support for Syrian independence ahead of the evacuation of French troops in April 1946.[3] During World War II, both countries were on the Allied side against the Axis powers.[4]
In 1971, under an agreement with President Hafez al-Assad, the Soviet Union opened its naval military base in Tartus,[5][6] a facility the former Soviet republic continues to use to this day. On 8 October 1980, Syria and the Soviet Union signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation.[7] The treaty runs for twenty years and has automatic five-year extensions unless one of the parties terminates the agreement. It provides for regular consultations on bilateral and multilateral issues of interest, coordination of responses in the event of a crisis, and military cooperation.[8] The treaty remains in force to this day. In January 1992, the Syrian government recognized the Russian Federation as the legal successor to the Soviet Union.
Russia in 2011 and 2012 used its veto power in the United Nations Security Council against resolutions promoted by Western and Arab countries, to prevent possible sanctions or military intervention against the Syrian government, and Russia continued supplying large amounts of arms that Syria's government had earlier contracted to buy and which were used to fight Western-backed rebels.[9] On 30 September 2015, Russia began a military intervention in the Syrian Civil War in support of the Syrian government, consisting of intensive air and cruise missile strikes against several terrorist groups, including ISIS and Al-Nusra Front (Al-Qaeda's official affiliate in Syria).
In February 2022, the Syrian Foreign Minister
History
Before 1944
In 1893, the
1944–1958
Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and Syria were established in July 1944. The Soviet Union commenced to take an interest in the Middle East after the Second World War. The two countries signed a secret agreement on 1 February 1946,[3] with the Soviet envoy to Syria and Lebanon Daniel Solod as a signatory for the USSR, in which the Soviet Union agreed to provide military help in the formation of the Syrian Arab Army and prescribed Soviet diplomatic and political support in the international arena. The Soviet Union demonstrated its commitment to this treaty with Andrey Vyshinsky's 15 February 1946 address to the United Nations Security Council calling for the removal of British and French troops from the country.[16] The last French troops were removed from Syria on 17 April 1946. During the Cold War (1947–1991) a stronger political bond developed, and Syria was considered an ally of the Soviet Union in opposition to the Western powers.[17]
In 1949, after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Syria experienced a number of military coups and the rise of the Ba'ath Party. Three coups d'état occurred by 1953, ushering in military dictatorships twice in the process. A non-aggression pact was signed on 10 April 1950 further cementing Soviet–Syrian ties. During the Cold War period, each conflict and war that broke out in the Middle East acted as a factor leading Syria to form closer ties with the Soviet Union. Following the military coup d’état of 25 February 1954, the Ba'ath Party came to the fore in Syrian politics.
The West-inspired
The response of the Soviet Union to the Suez Crisis (late October 1956) - threatening to use 'destructive weapons' against Britain and France - increased Soviet prestige in the Middle East. The Syrian President, then in the USSR, requested the Soviet government to intervene and send its pilots to increase the morale of the Arabs. Syrian Foreign Minister, in a talk with Soviet Foreign Minister, even requested the Soviet Union to deploy two squadron of planes along with their pilots after the Suez Crisis.[19]
Soviet aid to Syria accelerated and included military and economic agreements. Between 1955 and 1958, Syria received about $294 million from the Soviet Union for military and economic assistance.
1966–2010
The
In 1971, under an agreement with President Hafez al-Assad, the Soviet Union was allowed to open its naval military base in Tartus, giving the Soviet Union a stable presence in the Middle East.[5][6] Thousands of Syrian military officers and educated professionals studied in Russia during al-Assad's presidency (1971–2000).[23]
During the Yom Kippur War, thousands of Soviet advisors and technicians assisted the Syrian army, and 20 are believed to have died. 3,750 tonnes of aid was airlifted during the war to Syria. At the end of October 1973, the Soviet Union sealifted 63,000 tonnes, mainly to Syria to replace its losses during the war.
Nevertheless, relations with Syria became strained in 1976, as the Soviets were displeased by Assad's
In April 1977, Hafez al-Assad visited Moscow and met with Soviet leaders
Between 27 and 29 April 1987, Syrian President
Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000 and was succeeded on 10 July 2000 by his son Bashar al-Assad, who was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote.[26]
On 10 May 2010, Dmitry Medvedev became the first Russian president to visit Syria.[27]
Syrian Civil War (2011–present)
During the
Military cooperation
The Russian naval facility in Tartus, Syria, was established during the Cold War under a 1971 agreement with Syria. It is Russia's only naval facility in the Mediterranean region and the only remaining military facility outside the former Soviet Union.
After Russia forgave Syria 73%, or $9.6 billion, of its $13.4 billion Soviet-era debt in 2005
Since 2009, Russia has been renovating the Tartus naval base and dredging the port to allow access to its larger naval vessels.[32]
On January 18, 2017, Russia and Syria signed an agreement, effective forthwith, whereunder Russia would be allowed to expand and use the naval facility at Tartus for 49 years on a free-of-charge basis and enjoy sovereign jurisdiction over the base.[33][34][35] The treaty allows Russia to keep 11 warships at Tartus, including nuclear vessels;[36] it stipulates privileges and full immunity from Syria's jurisdiction for Russia's personnel and materiel at the facility.[37] The treaty was ratified and approved by Russian parliament, and the relevant federal law was signed by president Vladimir Putin by the end of December 2017.[38][39][40]
Russian air base in Palmyra
Russia had in 2013 an airbase in
Russian air base at Latakia
In 2015 Russia established the Khmeimim Air Base at Latakia.
Secret Russian spy bases
The journal Jane's Defence Weekly in 2006 assumed two secret, joint, Russian–Syrian signals intelligence ‘spy’ posts to exist within Syria.[42] The biggest Russian electronic ‘eavesdropping post’ outside Russian territory was in 2012 established in Latakia.[43]
Another signals intelligence base, "
Syria's air defence with Russian equipment
After the 2007 Israeli
2015 Russian military intervention
On 30 September 2015, Russia began a
In May 2019, The Moscow Times reported that "Fifty-five percent of Russian respondents say their country should end its military campaign in Syria, up from 49 percent in August 2017, according to a poll published by Levada".[47]
Ukraine War
In May 2022, The Guardian reported that 50 Syrian specialists skilled in making and delivering barrel bombs have been in Russia for several weeks working alongside officials from the Russian military to help potentially deliver a bombing campaign similar to the Syrian barrel bomb campaign.[48]
Joint military exercises
Syria and Russia regularly conduct joint military drills. In February 2022, the two countries conducted drills a week before Russia began its invasion of Ukraine. In June 2022, the Syrian and Russian air forces conducted drills over different parts of the country including the edge of the Golan Heights. In October 2022, Syrian state media reported that Syrian and Russian troops had conducted military drills simulating attacking enemy positions.[49]
Economic relations
Russia has significant economic interests in Syria. Its investments in the country were valued at $19.4 billion in 2009, according to "The Moscow Times", and its exports to Syria were worth $1.1 billion in 2010.[50][51]
Arms sales
The Soviet Union's military sales to Syria in the 1970s and 80s accounted for 90% of all Syrian military arms imports, according to a United States Congressional Research Service Report released in 2008.[52] The report noted that Syria purchased several billions of dollars' worth of military equipment from the Soviets, including SS-21 "Scarab" short-range missiles (range 70 km).[52]
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Syria found itself deprived of arms imports but continued to seek them through former Soviet satellite states.[52] The establishment of the Russian Federation in 1992 saw the re-introduction of the patron-vendor relationship and the cancellation of almost 73% of Syria's debt.[52] According to reports, 2.4% of Russia's total exports come from defense-related sales.[53]
From 2000 to 2010, Russia sold around $1.5 billion worth of arms to Syria, making Damascus Moscow's seventh-largest client, according to Dmitri Trenin in the New York Times.[28]
In 2008, Syria agreed to purchase modern weapons including modern anti-tank and anti-air missile systems from Russia, including
During the 2011
Syria's arms contracts with Russia in 2011 and 2012 amounted to $687 million, according to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).[56] But according to The Moscow Times, Russia and Syria had in 2011 well over $4 billion in active arms contracts.[57]
Other economic sectors
Russian firms in 2011 had a substantial presence in Syria's infrastructure, energy, and tourism industries.
Trade relations
In recent years, Russia has emerged as a vital supplier of essential commodities to Syria, including wheat, which is crucial for Syria's food security, and steel, pivotal for reconstruction efforts. The export basket also includes a variety of industrial goods, pharmaceutical products, and technology.[58]
Syria's exports to Russia traditionally include agricultural products, textiles, and minerals. These exports are vital for Syria's economy, providing essential revenue streams and supporting the livelihoods of those involved in the agricultural and mining sectors. The trade dynamics between the two countries reflect a synergistic relationship that benefits both economies.[58]
See also
- Foreign relations of Russia
- Foreign relations of Syria
- Embassy of Russia, Damascus
- Embassy of Syria, Moscow
- Ambassadors of Russia to Syria
References
- ^ Russia clings on to last outpost in West Asia| Pionner| 3 February 2012
- ^ contribution to ‘What Should the United States Do About Syria?: A TNR Symposium.’| Daniel W. Drezner| tnr.com| 9 February 2012
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- ^ Aron Lund, "From cold war to civil war: 75 years of Russian-Syrian relations." (Swedish Institute of International Affairs, 2019) online
- ^ a b International New York Times, 3 October 2015.
- ^ a b Breslauer, George W. (1990). Soviet Strategy in the Middle East. Boston, Massachusetts.
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- ^ Relations with the Soviet Union
- ^ Weir, Fred (19 January 2012). "Why Russia is willing to sell arms to Syria". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved February 22, 2022.
- ^ "Syria supports Putin's recognition of Ukraine breakaway regions". Reuters. 2022-02-22. Retrieved 2022-05-23.
- ^ "The UN Resolution on Ukraine: How Did the Middle East Vote?". The Washington Institute. Retrieved 2022-05-23.
- AP News. 29 June 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
- ^ "Syria recognizes independence, sovereignty of Donetsk, Luhansk -state news agency". Reuters. 2022-06-29. Retrieved 2022-06-30.
- AP News. 2022-07-20. Retrieved 2022-07-20.
- ^ a b c Kreutz, Andrej (2007). Russia in the Middle East: friend or foe?. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group.
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- ^ Trenin, Dmitri (5 February 2012). "Russia's Line in the Sand on Syria: Why Moscow Wants To Halt the Arab Spring". Foreign Affairs.com. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
- ^ "Syria's 1956 Request for Soviet Military Intervention | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org. Retrieved 2020-09-01.
- ^ "Syria's 1956 Request for Soviet Military Intervention | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org. Retrieved 2020-09-02.
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- ^ Historical Background and the Present State of the Russian-Syrian Relations
- ^ Peel, Michael; Clover, Charles (9 July 2012). "Syria and Russia's 'special relationship'". Financial Times. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
- ^ Lund, Aron (2019). "From cold war to civil war: 75 years of Russian-Syrian relations". Swedish Institute of International Affairs.
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- ^ "Syria's opposition boycotts vote on Assad". Reuters. May 17, 2007. Retrieved March 7, 2021.
- ^ "Официальный визит в Сирию". Kremlin (in Russian). 10 May 2010.
- ^ New York Times. Retrieved 9 February 2012.
- ^ А.Кудрин: Россия простила Сирии $9,6 млрд долгов: Россия спишет 73% от суммы долга Сирии, который с учетом встречной задолженности и обязательств России составляет 13,4 млрд долл., сообщил сегодня министр финансов РФ Алексей Кудрин по итогам российско-сирийских переговоров в Кремле. RBK Group, 25 January 2005.
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- DEBKAfile. August 21, 2008. Archived from the originalon August 23, 2008. Retrieved August 22, 2008.
- ^ "INSS: Syria Report" (PDF). Institute for National Security Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2011.
- ^ "Moscow cements deal with Damascus to keep 49-year presence at Syrian naval and air bases". TASS. 20 January 2017.
- ^ "New Russia-Syria accord allows up to 11 warships in Tartus port simultaneously". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 30 January 2017.
- ^ Путин внес в ГД соглашение о расширении пункта обеспечения ВМФ в Тартусе. RIA Novosti (in Russian). 13 December 2017.
- ^ "Russia establishing permanent presence at its Syria bases: RIA". Reuters. 26 December 2017.
- ^ Соглашение между Российской Федерацией и Сирийской Арабской Республикой о расширении территории пункта материально-технического обеспечения Военно-Морского Флота Российской Федерации в районе порта Тартус и заходах военных кораблей Российской Федерации в территориальное море, внутренние воды и порты Сирийской Арабской Республики // ″Статья 9 Иммунитеты и привилегии″, kodeks.ru
- ^ Подписан закон о ратификации соглашения между Россией и Сирией о расширении территории пункта материально-технического обеспечения ВМФ России в районе порта Тартус kremlin.ru, 29 December 2017.
- ^ Путин подписал закон о ратификации соглашения по базе ВМФ РФ в Тартусе Rossiyskaya Gazeta, 29 December 2017.
- ^ Russia's upper house ratifies agreement on naval base in Syria's Tartus TASS, 26 December 2017.
- ^ "Syria: Russia evacuates nationals, remains close to Assad". Beirut: ANSAmed. 25 January 2013. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
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- ^ a b Borger, Julian (23 December 2012). "Russian military presence in Syria poses challenge to US-led intervention". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
- ^ "Captured Russian spy facility reveals the extent of Russian aid to the Assad regime". spioenkop. 6 October 2014. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
- ^ Weir, Fred (14 October 2015). "Why isn't Russia singling out ISIS in Syria? Because it never said it would". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
- ^ "Iranian MP asks Russia to activate S-300s during Israeli strikes". Arutz Sheva 7. 4 February 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
- ^ "Fewer Than Half of Russians Support Syria Campaign, Poll Says". The Moscow Times. 6 May 2019.
- ^ Chulov, Martin (22 May 2022). "Syria's barrel bomb experts in Russia to help with potential Ukraine campaign". The Guardian.
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- ^ a b Amos, Howard (2 September 2011). "Billions of Dollars of Russian Business Suffers Along With Syria". The Moscow Times. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
- ^ "Syria: EU Bilateral Trade and Trade with the World" (PDF). European Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
- ^ a b c d Sharp, Jeremy M. (1 May 2008), "Syria: Background and U.S. Relations", CRS Report for Congress, Washington, DC
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Meyer, Henry (20 April 2012). "Putin Pins Hope on Syria Cease-Fire to Combat U.S. Supremacy". Team Soldier. Archived from the original on 4 November 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
- ^ ‘Russia defends arms sales to Syria’. UPI.com, 29 September 2008.
- ^ Barry, Anya (9 February 2012). "Adding Fuel to Syria's Fire". FPIF. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
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- ^ a b Briefing, Middle East (2023-11-13). "Syria and Russia: The 2023-24 Trade and Investment Dynamics". Middle East Briefing. Retrieved 2024-03-25.
Further reading
- Allison, Roy (2013). "Russia and Syria: Explaining Alignment with a Regime in Crisis". International Affairs. 89 (4): 795–823.
- Allison, Roy. Russia, the West and military intervention (Oxford University Press, 2013)
- Averre, Derek, and Lance Davies. "Russia, humanitarian intervention and the Responsibility to Protect: the case of Syria." International Affairs 91.4 (2015): 813-834. online[dead link]
- Baev, Pavel K. "Russia as opportunist or spoiler in the Middle East?." International Spectator 50.2 (2015): 8-21. online
- Crosston, Matthew D. "Cold War and Ayatollah residues: Syria as a chessboard for Russia, Iran, and the United States." Strategic Studies Quarterly 8.4 (2014): 94-111. online
- Lund, Aron. "From cold war to civil war: 75 years of Russian-Syrian relations." (Swedish Institute of International Affairs, 2019). online
- Phillips, Christopher. The battle for Syria (Yale University Press, 2020).
- Pieper, Moritz. "‘Rising Power’ Status and the Evolution of International Order: Conceptualising Russia's Syria Policies." Europe-Asia Studies 71.3 (2019): 365-387. online
- Souleimanov, Emil Aslan, and Valery Dzutsati. "Russia's Syria War: A Strategic Trap?" Middle East Policy 25.2 (2018): 42-50. online
- Trenin, Dmitri. What Is Russia Up to in the Middle East? (Polity Press, 2018).
- Van Dam, Nikolaos. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba’th (I. B. Tauris, 4th ed., 2011)
- Van Dam, Nikolaos. Destroying a Nation: The Civil War in Syria (I. B. Tauris, 2017)
- Vasiliev, Alexey. Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin (Routledge, 2018).
External links
- (in Arabic, English, and Russian) Embassy of Russia in Damascus Archived 2016-04-03 at the Wayback Machine