Russian Armenia
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Russian Armenia is the period of Armenian history under Russian rule from 1828, when Eastern Armenia became part of the Russian Empire following Qajar Iran's loss in the Russo-Persian War (1826–1828) and the subsequent ceding of its territories that included Eastern Armenia per the out coming Treaty of Turkmenchay of 1828.[1]
Eastern Armenia remained part of the Russian Empire until its collapse in 1917.[2]
Background
For hundreds of years, the inhabitants of Eastern Armenia lived under the rule of successive
In 1678, the Armenian leadership secretly conducted a congress in
The Russian annexation and Persia's ceding
A turning-point came in 1801 when the Russians
In 1826, in violation of the Gulistan treaty, the Russians occupied parts of Iran's
Demographic shifts
Until the late fifteenth century, Armenians had constituted a majority in Eastern Armenia.[7] At the close of the fifteenth century, with the rise of the Safavids, Islam had become the dominant faith, and Armenians became a minority in Eastern Armenia.[7]
Some 80% of the population of
As a result of the Treaty of Gulistan (1813) and the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), Iran was forced to cede Iranian Armenia (which also constituted the present-day Armenia), to the Russians.[9][10]
After the Russian administration took hold of Iranian Armenia, the ethnic make-up shifted, and thus for the first time in three centuries, ethnic Armenians started to form a majority once again in one part of historic Armenia.[11] The new Russian administration encouraged the return of ethnic Armenians from Iran proper and Anatolia to their homeland. As a result, by 1832, the number of ethnic Armenians had matched that of the Muslims.[8] Anyhow, it would be only after the Crimean War and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, which brought another influx of Turkish Armenians, that ethnic Armenians once again established a solid majority in Eastern Armenia.[12] Nevertheless, the city of Erivan remained having a Muslim majority up to the twentieth century.[12] According to the traveller H. F. B. Lynch, the city was about 50% Armenian and 50% Muslim (Azerbaijanis and Persians) in the early 1890s.[13]
Establishment of Russian rule
Armenian patriots such as Bishop Nerses had hoped for an autonomous Armenia within the Russian Empire, but they were to be disappointed by the new government. Tsar Nicholas and his governor in Transcaucasia, Ivan Paskevich, had other plans. They wanted the Russian Empire to be a centralised state and when Nerses complained he was soon sent to Bessarabia, far away from the Caucasus region.[14]
In 1836 a regulation, the Polozhenie (charter) was enacted by the Russian government that greatly reduced the political powers of the Armenian religious leadership, including that of the
Armenians within the Russian Empire
A significant number of Armenians were already living in the Russian Empire before the 1820s. After the destruction of the last remaining independent Armenian states in the Middle Ages, the nobility disintegrated, leaving Armenian society composed of a mass of peasants plus a middle class who were either craftsmen or merchants. Such Armenians were to be found in most towns of Transcaucasia; indeed, at the beginning of the 19th century they formed the majority of the population in cities such as
Nevertheless, middle-class Armenians prospered under Russian rule and they were the first to seize the new opportunities and transform themselves into a prosperous bourgeoisie when capitalism and industrialisation came to Transcaucasia in the later half of the 19th century. The Armenians were much more skilled at adapting to the new economic circumstances than their neighbours in Transcaucasia, the Georgians and the Azeris. They became the most powerful element in the municipal life of Tbilisi, the city regarded by Georgians as their capital, and in the late 19th century they began to buy up the lands of the Georgian nobility, who had gone into decline after the emancipation of their serfs. Armenian entrepreneurs were quick to exploit the oil boom which began in Transcaucasia in the 1870s, having large investments in the oil-fields in Baku in Azerbaijan and the refineries of Batumi on the Black Sea coast. All this meant that the tensions between Armenians, Georgians and Azeris in Russian Transcaucasia were not simply ethnic or religious in nature but were due to social and economic factors too. Nevertheless, in spite of the popular image of the typical Armenian as a successful businessman, at the end of the 19th century 80 per cent of Russian Armenians were still peasants working the land.[17]
Russian rule until 1877
Relations between the Russian authorities and their new Armenian subjects did not begin smoothly. Since Armenia was on Russia's frontline against the rival empires of the Ottomans and Persians, it was initially treated as a military zone. Until 1840, Russian Armenia was a separate administrative unit, the
As a consequence, by the mid-19th century, most of the Armenian
The Russo-Turkish War
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 marked a watershed in the relationship between the Russian authorities and their Armenian subjects. Armenians still living in western Armenia under the Ottoman Empire had grown increasingly discontented and looked towards Russia to free them from Turkish rule. In 1877, war broke out between the Russia and the Ottomans over the treatment of Christians in the Balkans. The Russians were keen to mobilise Armenian patriotism when they advanced on a second front against the Turks in the Caucasus, and many of the commanders they employed were of Armenian descent. The Russians made large territorial gains in western Armenia before an armistice was called in January, 1878.
The
The reign of Alexander III, 1881–1894
After the assassination of the reform-minded Tsar Alexander II in 1881, the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the national minorities of the empire changed dramatically.
The new tsar, Alexander III, was ultra-conservative in outlook and wanted to create a highly centralised, autocratic state. He viewed any expression of a desire for increased freedom and autonomy by his subjects as evidence of rebellion.
Russification
The last decades of the 19th century also saw a rise in Russian chauvinism with non-Russians described in increasingly racist terms. Armenians came in for particular abuse in ways which often resembled
Russification began in earnest in 1885, when the Viceroy of the Caucasus, Dondukov-Korsakov, ordered the closure of all Armenian parish schools and their replacement by Russian ones. Though the Armenian schools were reopened the following year, they were now subject to strict tsarist control and the use of the Armenian language was discouraged in favour of Russian. The Russians also began to persecute the Armenian Church, which had been separate from the Orthodox Church since the year 451.[22][23] The Russian attitude to the Ottoman Empire also changed and by the 1890s, Russia and Britain had exchanged roles. Now it was Russia who supported the status quo in western Armenia, with the British urging improvement in conditions for Christians in the region. The Russian authorities were disturbed by revolutionary Armenian nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire and feared their links with eastern Armenians would increase subversion within Russian Transcaucasia too. The tsarist regime cracked down on any attempt by Russian Armenians to engage in action across the border, a leading example being the Gugunian Expedition of 1890.[24]
The growth of Armenian nationalism
Armenians played little role in the revolutionary movements of the Russian Empire until the 1880s. Until that point, the ideas of Grigor Artsruni, the editor of the Tbilisi-based newspaper Mshak ("The Cultivator"), enjoyed great popularity among the Armenian intelligentsia. Artsruni believed that life under the Russian Empire represented the "lesser evil" for his people. Russian Armenians were deeply concerned about the plight of their compatriots under the Persian and Ottoman Empires, especially the peasants of western Armenia who were mostly ignored by Ottoman Armenian intellectuals far away in Istanbul and Smyrna. Tbilisi and Yerevan were much more obvious choices for a base for promoting revolutionary activity among Armenians in the eastern Ottoman Empire. The importance of the unity of the Armenia, divided between three empires, ensured that Armenian political movements would have little in common with other political movements in the Russian Empire.[25]
The growth of
The reign of Nicholas II 1894–1917
Edict on Armenian church property 1903–1904
In 1897, Tsar Nicholas appointed the Armenophobic
The tsar's Russification programme reached its peak with the decree of June 12, 1903 ordering the confiscation of the properties of the Armenian Church. The Catholicos of Armenia begged the Russians to overturn the decree but when they refused he turned to the Dashnaks. The Armenian clergy had previously been very wary of the Dashnaks, condemning their socialism as anti-clerical, but now they saw them as their protectors. The Dashnaks formed a Central Committee for Self-Defence in the Caucasus and organised a series of protests among Armenians. At Gandzak the Russian army responded by firing into the crowd, killing ten, and further demonstrations were met with more bloodshed. The Dashnaks and Hunchaks began a campaign of assassinations against tsarist officials in Transcaucasia and they even succeeded in wounding Prince Golitsin. In 1904, the Dashnak congress specifically extended their programme to look after the rights of Armenians within the Russian Empire as well as Ottoman Turkey.
The 1905 Revolution
Unrest in Transcaucasia, which also included major strikes, reached a climax with the widespread uprisings throughout the Russian Empire known as the
Tribune of People, 1912
In January 1912, a total of 159 Armenians were charged with membership of an anti-"Revolutionary" organization. During the revolution Armenian revolutionaries were split into "Old Dashnaks", allied with the Kadets and "Young Dashnaks" aligned with the SRs. To determine the position of Armenians all forms of Armenian national movement put into trial. The entire Armenian intelligentsia, including writers, physicians, lawyers, bankers, and even merchants" on trial.[30] When the tribune finished its work, 64 charges were dropped and the rest were either imprisoned or exiled for varying periods.[31]
World War One and independence, 1914–1918
The years between the 1905 Revolution and World War I saw a rapprochement between most Armenians and the Russian authorities. Russia became concerned when her enemy Germany began drawing closer to the Ottoman Empire, which led the Russians to take a renewed interest in the welfare of the Ottoman Armenians.
When World War I broke out in August 1914, the Russians sought to mobilise Armenian patriotic sentiment. Most Armenian troops were transferred to the
Occupation of Turkish Armenia
The Ottoman authorities embarked on the genocide of their Armenian subjects as early as April 1915 following the rapid Russian advance in the Caucasus Campaign and the Siege of Van. An Armenian provisional government[34] within the autonomous region was initially set up around Lake Van.[35] The Armenian government in the war zone was briefly referred to as "Free Vaspurakan",[36] and after an Ottoman advance in June 1915. With the Ottoman advance in June 1915 250,000 Armenians from Van and the neighbouring region of Alashkerd retreated to the Russian frontier. Russian Transcaucasia was flooded with refugees from the massacres.
While it scored military successes against the Turks, the Russian war machine began to disintegrate on its front against Germany and in February 1917 the tsarist regime was overthrown by a revolution in Saint Petersburg.[37][38]
Russian Armenians greeted the new government with enthusiasm, hoping it would secure Ottoman Armenia for them. The issue of the continuation of the war was a highly contentious one amongst the political parties of the new Russia, with most favouring a "democratic peace"; but since the provinces of Ottoman Armenia were under Russian military occupation at the time of the revolution, the Armenians believed that the government would agree to defend them. To help out, the Provisional Government began replacing Russian troops, whose commitment to continued fighting was in doubt, with Armenian ones on the Caucasian front. But as 1917 went on the Provisional Government lost support among Russian soldiers and workers and much of the army melted away from Transcaucasia.
Armenian Congress of Eastern Armenians
The
The
First Republic of Armenia
The major problem confronting the new state was the advancing Ottoman army, which by now had recaptured much of western Armenia, but the interests of the three peoples were very different. For obvious reasons, defence against the invading army was of paramount importance to the Armenians, while the Muslim Azeris were sympathetic to the Turks. The Georgians felt that their interests could best be guaranteed by coming to a deal with the Germans rather than the Turks and on May 26, 1918, at German prompting, Georgia declared its independence from the Transcaucasian Republic. This move was followed two days later by Azerbaijan. Reluctantly, the Dashnak leaders, who were the most powerful Armenian politicians in the region, declared the formation of a new independent state, the First Republic of Armenia on May 28, 1918.[39]
Republic of Mountainous Armenia
The
Centrocaspian Dictatorship
The Centrocaspian Dictatorship was a British-backed anti-Soviet government founded in Baku on August 1, 1918. The government was composed by the Socialist-Revolutionary Party and the Armenian national movement which majority was from Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaks). British force the Dunsterforce occupied the city and helped the mainly Dashnak-Armenian forces to defend the capital during the Battle of Baku. However, Baku fell on September 15, 1918 and an Azeri-Ottoman army entered the capital, causing British forces and much of the Armenian population to flee. The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on November 30, 1918 and the British occupational force re-entered Baku.
Soviet rule
Eventually, the USSR annexed Eastern Armenia and rendered it the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic.
Maps
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Kars Oblast. Russian map.
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Erivan Governorate. Russian map.
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Elisabethpol Governorate. Russian map.
See also
- History of Armenia
- Timeline of Armenian history
- Armenian Oblast
- Erivan Governorate
- Elisabethpol Governorate
- Kars Oblast(since 1878)
References
- ^ ISBN 1598849484
- ISBN 9781501750113.
- ISBN 2-02-025685-1pp. 46-47
- ISBN 1-4039-6422-Xpp. 103-104
- ISBN 978-0415624336.
Perhaps the most important legacy of Yermolov was his intention from early on to prepare the ground for the conquest of the remaining khanates under Iranian rule and to make the River Aras the new border. (...) Another provocative action by Yermolov was the Russian occupation of the northern shore of Lake Gokcha (Sivan) in the Khanate of Iravan in 1825. A clear violation of Golestan, this action was the most significant provocation by the Russian side. The Lake Gokcha occupation clearly showed that it was Russia and not Iran which initiated hostilities and breached Golestan, and that Iran was left with no choice but to come up with a proper response.
- ISBN 978-1598849486.
In May 1826, Russia therefore occupied Mirak, in the Erivan khanate, in violation of the Treaty of Gulistan.
- ^ a b Bournoutian 1980, pp. 11, 13–14.
- ^ a b Bournoutian 1980, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Bournoutian 1980, pp. 1–2.
- ^ Mikaberidze 2015, p. 141.
- ^ Bournoutian 1980, p. 14.
- ^ a b Bournoutian 1980, p. 13.
- ^ Kettenhofen, Bournoutian & Hewsen 1998, pp. 542–551.
- ^ Bournoutian. Armenian People, p. 106
- ^ Suny, Ronald Grigor. "Eastern Armenians under Tsarist Rule" in Armenian People, p. 115
- ^ Suny. Armenian People, p. 110
- ^ ISBN 0-253-20773-8
- ^ a b Suny. Looking Toward Ararat, p. 43
- ^ Ternon. Les Arméniens, pp. 61-74
- ^ Suny. Looking Toward Ararat, pp. 42-43
- ^ Ternon. Les Arméniens, p. 93
- ^ Ternon. Les Arméniens, p. 94
- ^ Suny. Looking Toward Ararat, p. 45
- ^ Suny. Looking Toward Ararat, p. 46
- ^ Suny. Looking Toward Ararat, pp. 66-67
- ^ Ternon. Les Arméniens, pp. 94-95
- ^ Ternon. Les Arméniens, p. 157
- ^ Suny. Looking Toward Ararat, pp. 81-82
- ^ Ternon. Les Arméniens, pp. 159-62
- ^ Abraham, Richard (1990). Alexander Kerensky: The First Love of the Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press, p. 53
- ^ Abraham. Alexander Kerensky, p. 54
- ^ a b Hovannisian “The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times “ p 280
- ^ Richard G. Hovannisian, The Armenian People From Ancient To Modern Times. page 284
- ^ See Western
- ^ The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: edited by Richard G Hovannisian
- ^ Robert-Jan Dwork Holocaust: A History by Deborah and van Pelt, p 38
- ^ Suny. Armenian People, p. 136
- ^ Ternon. Les Arméniens, p. 218
- ^ Suny. Looking Toward Ararat, pp. 119-25
Bibliography
- Bournoutian, George A. (1980). "The Population of Persian Armenia Prior to and Immediately Following its Annexation to the Russian Empire: 1826-1832"(PDF). The Wilson Center, Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies.
- Kettenhofen, Erich; Bournoutian, George A.; Hewsen, Robert H. (1998). "EREVAN". Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 5. pp. 542–551.
- ISBN 1-4039-6422-X.
- ISBN 0-253-20773-8.
- Ternon, Yves (1996). Les Arméniens. Seuil. p. 436 pages. ISBN 2-02-025685-1.
- Kurdoghlian, Mihran (1996). Hayots Badmoutioun, B. Hador [Armenian History, volume II] (in Armenian). Athens, Greece: Hradaragutiun Azkayin Oosoomnagan Khorhoortee. pp. 89–93.
- Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G. R. G; Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 7. Cambridge: ISBN 0521200954.
- Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1442241466.