Russian conquest of Siberia
| Russian conquest of Siberia | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the territorial evolution of Russia | |||||||||
 Yermak's Conquest of Siberia, a painting by Vasily Surikov | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Tsardom of Russia Don Cossacks Allied Indigenous Siberians |
Khanate of Sibir (until 1598) Daurs Bashkirs Yakuts Koryaks Chukchis  China (1652–1689) | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
.svg){kind=small} Yermak † Andrey Voyeykov Pyotr Beketov Ivan Moskvitin Yerofey Khabarov Vassili Poyarkov Vladimir Atlasov Dmitry Pavlutsky † |
Kuchum Khan Daur prince Guigudar | ||||||||
The Russian conquest of Siberia took place during 1580–1778, when the Khanate of Sibir became a loose political structure of vassalages that were being undermined by the activities of Russian explorers. Although outnumbered, the Russians pressured the various family-based tribes into changing their loyalties and establishing distant forts from which they conducted raids. It is traditionally considered that Yermak Timofeyevich's campaign against the Siberian Khanate began in 1580. The annexation of Siberia and the Far East to Russia was resisted by local residents and took place against the backdrop of fierce battles between the Indigenous peoples of Siberia and the Russian Cossacks, who often committed atrocities against Indigenous Siberians.[1]
Conquest of the Khanate of Sibir
The Russian conquest of Siberia began in July 1580 when some 540 Cossacks under Yermak Timofeyevich invaded the territory of the Voguls, subjects to Kuchum Khan, ruler of the Sibir Khanate. They were accompanied by some Lithuanian and German mercenaries and prisoners of war. Throughout 1581, this force traversed the territory known as Yugra and subdued Vogul and Ostyaks towns. At this time, they also captured a tax collector of Kuchum Khan.
Following a series of Tatar raids in retaliation against the Russian advance, Yermak's forces prepared for a campaign to take Qashliq, the Siberian capital. The force embarked in May 1582. After a three-day battle on the banks of the Irtysh River, Yermak was victorious against a combined force of Kuchum Khan and six allied Tatar princes. On 29 June, the Cossack forces were attacked by the Tatars but again repelled them.
Throughout September 1582, the Khan gathered his forces for a defense of Qashliq. A horde of Siberian Tatars, Voguls, and Ostyaks massed at Mount Chyuvash to defend against invading Cossacks. On 1 October, a Cossack attempt to storm the Tatar fort at Mount Chyuvash was held off. On 23 October, the Cossacks attempted to storm the Tatar fort at Mount Chyuvash for a fourth time when the Tatars counterattacked. More than a hundred Cossacks were killed, but their gunfire forced a Tatar retreat and allowed the capture of two Tatar cannons. The forces of the Khan retreated, and Yermak entered Qashliq on 26 October.
Kuchum Khan retreated into the
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Despite his personal escape, the capture of his family ended the political and military activities of Kuchum Khan and he retreated to the territories of the Nogai Horde in southern Siberia. He had been in contact with the tsar and had requested that a small region on the banks of the Irtysh River would be granted as his dominion. This was rejected by the tsar who proposed to Küçüm Khan that he come to Moscow and "comfort himself" in the service of the tsar. However, the old khan did not want to suffer from such contempt and preferred staying in his own lands to "comforting himself" in Moscow. Kuchum Khan then went to Bukhara and as an old man became blind, dying in exile with distant relatives sometime around 1605.[citation needed]
Conquest and exploration
In order to subjugate the natives and collect
Advancing up the Ob and its tributaries, the ostrogs of
Following the khan's death and the dissolution of any organised Siberian resistance, the Russians advanced first towards
The Russians reached the Pacific Ocean in 1639.[5] After the conquest of the Siberian Khanate (1598), the whole of North Asia – an area much larger than the old khanate – became known as Siberia and, by 1640, the eastern borders of Russia had expanded more than several million square kilometres. In a sense, the khanate lived on in the subsidiary title "Tsar of Siberia" which became part of the full imperial style of the Russian autocrats.
The conquest of Siberia also resulted in the spread of diseases. Historian
Effects on the indigenous peoples of Siberia
When the Cossacks' entreaties were rejected, they chose to respond with force. Under the leadershp of
In the 1640s, the
According to John F. Richards:
Smallpox first reached western Siberia in 1630. In the 1650s, it moved east of the Yenisey, where it carried away up to 80 percent of the Tungus and Yakut populations. In the 1690s, smallpox epidemics reduced Yukagir numbers by an estimated 44 percent. The disease moved rapidly from group to group across Siberia. Death rates in epidemics reached 50 percent of the population. The scourge returned at twenty- to thirty-year intervals, with dreadful results among the young.[6]
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In Kamchatka, the Russians crushed the Itelmen uprisings against their rule in 1706, 1731, and 1741. The first time, the Itelmens were armed with stone weapons and were badly unprepared and equipped but they used gunpowder weapons the second time. The Russians faced tougher resistance when from 1745 to 1756 they tried to subjugate the gun and bow equipped Koryaks until their victory. The Russian Cossacks also faced fierce resistance and were forced to give up trying to wipe out the Chukchi in 1729, 1730–1731, and 1744–1747.[13] After the Russian defeat in 1729 at Chukchi hands, the Russian commander Major Pavlutskiy was responsible for the Russian war against the Chukchi and the mass slaughters and enslavement of Chukchi women and children in 1730–1731, but his cruelty only made the Chukchis fight more fiercely.[14] Cleansing of the Chukchis and Koryaks was ordered by Empress Elizabeth in 1742 to totally expel them from their native lands and erase their culture through war. The command was that the natives be "totally extirpated" with Pavlutskiy leading again in this war from 1744 to 1747 in which he led the Cossacks "with the help of Almighty God and to the good fortune of Her Imperial Highness", to slaughter the Chukchi men and enslave their women and children as booty. However the Chukchi ended this campaign and forced them to give up by decapitating and killing Pavlutskiy.[15][16]
The Russians were also launching wars and slaughters against the Koryaks in 1744 and 1753–1754. After the Russians tried to force the natives to convert to Christianity, the different native peoples like the Koryaks, Chukchis, Itelmens, and Yukaghirs all united to drive the Russians out of their land in the 1740s, culminating in the assault on Nizhnekamchatsk fort in 1746.[17] Kamchatka today is European in demographics and culture with only 5% of it being native, around 10,000 from a previous number of 150,000, due to the mass slaughters by the Cossacks after its annexation in 1697 of the Itelmens and Koryaks throughout the first decades of Russian rule. The killings by the Russian Cossacks devastated the native peoples of Kamchatka.[18] In addition to committing massacres the Cossacks also devastated the wildlife by slaughtering massive numbers of animals for fur.[19] 90% of the Kamchadals and half of the Vogules were killed from the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries and the rapid slaughter of the indigenous population led to entire ethnic groups being entirely wiped out, with around 12 exterminated groups which could be named by Nikolai Yadrintsev as of 1882. Much of the slaughter was brought on by the Siberian fur trade.[20]
The oblastniki in the 19th century among the Russians in Siberia acknowledged that the natives were subjected to immense violent exploitation, and claimed that they would rectify the situation with their proposed regionalist policies.[21]
The
The Russian colonization of Siberia and conquest of its indigenous peoples has been compared to the
The Ainu have emphasized that they were the natives of the Kuril Islands and that the Japanese and Russians were both invaders.[25]
Timeline of conquest
16th century: Conquest of Western Siberia
- 1581-1585 - Siberian campaign of Ermak Timofeevich
- 1586 - Vasily Sukin founded Tyumen (the first Russian city in Siberia), on the site on the former capital of the Siberian Khanate
- 1587 - Tobolsk was founded on the Irtysh, which later became the "Capital of Siberia"
- 1590 - the first decree on the resettlement of the Russian population in Siberia (35 "arable people" from Solvychegodsk district "with their wives and children and with all the estate" were sent to settle in Siberia)
- 1593 - Berezov founded
- 1594 - Surgut and Tara founded
- 1595 - Obdorsk founded
- 1598 - conquest of the Piebald Horde, Narym founded
- 1598 - Battle of Irmen, the final conquest of the Siberian Khanate.
17th century: From the Yenisei to the Pacific Ocean, conflicts with China
- 1601 - Samoyeds)
- 1604 - Yenisei Kirghiz
- 1607 - Turukhansk was founded (the first city on the Yenisei), the conquest of the Enets
- 1618 - Kuznetsk founded
- 1619 - Yeniseisk founded
- after 1620 - an unknown unsuccessful expedition to Taimyr (finds in Simsa Bay and the Thaddeus Islands)
- 1623 - Pyanda first reached the Lena River in the Kirensk region
- 1628 - Voivode Andrey Dubensky founded Krasnoyarsk on the Yenisei, Kansky Ostrozhek was founded
- 1630 - Vasily Bugor founded Kirensk on the Lena, Ivan Galkin founded the llim winter hut
- 1631 - Ataman Maxim Perfilyev founded the Bratsk prison on the Angara, the Ust-Kutsk prison was founded
- 1632 - Pyotr Beketov founded Yakutsk and Zhigansk. Two years later, the Yakuts defeated the Cossack detachment of Ivan Galkin on the Lena and laid siege to Yakutsk. Such a counterattack by the local population was largely due to the strife between the Cossack detachments (Mangazeya and Yenisei), who were in conflict over the collection of yasak
- 1633 - Ivan Rebrov discovered the mouth of the Lena and the Yana River
- 1638 - Yakut Voivodeship was established, the horse campaign of the centurion Ivanov to Indigirka against the Yukaghirs
- 1638 - expedition of the stolnik Peter Golovin and clerk Efim Filatov to the Lena River to build a prison
- 1639 - Kopylov sent a detachment under the command of Ivan Moskvitin to the Sea of Lamsky
- 1643 - Ataman Vasily Kolesnikov reaches Lake Baikal while Mikhail Stadukhin reaches Kolyma
- 1643 - Vasily Poyarkov's expedition to the Amur region (Dauria), rafting down the Amur to the Sea of Okhotsk
- 1644-1645 - campaign of the Cossacks against the Buryats in the Angarsk Steppe
- 1646 - expedition of Vasily Poyarkov: a campaign from Yakutsk to the Sea of Okhotsk
- 1647 - Ivan Moskvitin founded Okhotsk
- 1648 - Semyon Dezhnev passes the Bering Strait, the first European to do so, 80 years before Vitus Bering.
- 1648-1653 - Yerofey Khabarov's campaigns in Dauria
- 1649-1689 - Russian-Qing border conflict
- 1652 - Battle of Achan prison
- 1653 - Chita and Nerchinsk were founded in Transbaikalia
- 1655 - Siege of Kumar prison
- 1661 - Irkutsk was founded on the Angara by Yakov Pokhabov
- 1665 - Selenginsky prison was founded by Gavrila Lovtsov on the Selenga
- 1666 - on the Uda, at its confluence with the Selenga, the Uda winter hut was founded, later to be known as the Uda jail
- 1685-1686 - Siege of Albazin
- 1686 - an unsuccessful attempt to penetrate Taimyr (Ivan Tolstoukhov): the expedition went missing
- 1689 - China and Russia sign the Treaty of Nerchinsk
- 1692 - an expedition of Russian service people against the Yenisei Kirghiz, the defeat of the Tubinsky ulus. Up to 700 Kirghiz were killed in the battle.
- 1697-1698 - the annexation of Kamchatka by the expedition of Vladimir Atlasov
- 1699 - when returning to the Anadyr prison, the Seryukov detachment was destroyed
18th century: Conquest of Chukotka and Kamchatka
- 1703-1715 - an uprising in Kamchatka against the Russians, during which the Bolsheretsky and Aklansky prisons were burned and about 200 Cossacks were killed; in 1705, the Koryaks destroyed a Cossack detachment led by Protopopov. In 1715, the Russians took the largest Koryak settlement, Bolshoy Posad.
- 1709 - Bikatun prison was set up in the foothills of Altai
- 1711 - Danila Antsiferov discovers the Kuril Islands
- 1712 - revolt and murder of their chiefs (Atlasov, Chirikov, and Mironov) by the Cossacks in Kamchatka
- 1712 - Mercury Vagin discovers the New Siberian Islands
- 1716 - Omsk is founded
- 1730s-1740s - Trips to Chukotka. Military expeditions of Russian detachments under the command of Pavlutsky.
- 1733-1743 - The Great Northern Expedition to explore the Siberian coast of the Arctic Ocean (Khariton Laptev, Semyon Cheyuskin): the deserted Taimyr was explored, the mountains of Byrranga and Cape Chelyuskin (The Northern tip of Siberia) were discovered
- 1740 - Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky was founded
- 1747 - The Chukchi destroyed the detachment of the Anadyr commandant
- 1748-1755 - Seven military campaigns against the Chukchi
- 1752 - The Gizhiginskaya fortress was founded
- 1753 - Siege by the Koryaks of the Gizhiginskaya fortress
- 1778 - The final annexation of Chukotka
Ideology
The core ideological justification for Russian expansion into Siberia stemmed from the interpretation that the legal incorporation of the Khanate of Sibir into the Russian realm gave Russia legal sovereignty over the entirety of the territory stretching from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean to the east. The actual boundaries of Siberia thus became very vaguely defined and open to interpretation; effectively, Russian dominion over the land ended only whenever Russia's claims to land conflicted with those of centralised states capable of opposing Russian expansion and consistently asserting their own sovereignty over a given territory, such as China and Mongolia. A second ideological pillar justifying Russian colonialism was the spread of
See also
- List of Russian explorers
- Russian irredentism
- Sino-Russian border conflicts
- Siberian regionalism
Siberia portal
References
- ^ "Хождение "Встречь солнцу" в контексте проблем присоединения Дальнего Востока к Российскому государству (хvii-хviii вв. )" (in Russian).
- ISBN 0-7735-0133-9.
- ISBN 978-0-8014-8922-8.
- ^ OCLC 1223259.
- ^ "Sibirien". Nationalencyklopedin (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. Retrieved 2022-08-31.
- ^ ISBN 0520939352.
- ^ "Tlingit, Eskimo and Aleut armors." Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine Kunstkamera. Accessed 10 Feb 2014.
- ISBN 1135765952– via Google Books.
- ^ a b "The Amur's siren song". The Economist (From the print edition: Christmas Specials ed.). Dec 17, 2009. Retrieved 15 August 2014.
- ^ Forsyth 1994, p. 104.
- ^ Stephan 1996, p. 64.
- ^ Levene 2005, p. 294.
- ISBN 978-0300147698– via Google Books.
- ^ Forsyth 1994, pp. 145–6.
- ^ Shentalinskaia, Tatiana (Spring 2002). "Major Pavlutskii: From History to Folklore". Slavic and East European Folklore Association Journal. 7 (1): 3–21. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
- ^ Forsyth 1994, p. 146.
- ^ Forsyth 1994, p. 147.
- ^ "Yearbook" 1992, p. 46.
- ^ Mote 1998, p. 44.
- ^ Etkind 2013, p. 78.
- ^ Wood 2011, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Forsyth (1994), p. 151.
- ^ Batalden 1997, p. 36.
- ^ Batalden 1997, p. 37.
- ^ McCarthy, Terry (September 22, 1992). "Ainu people lay ancient claim to Kurile Islands: The hunters and fishers who lost their land to the Russians and Japanese are gaining the confidence to demand their rights". The Independent.
- S2CID 238729047. Retrieved 3 November 2022.
Further reading
- Bassin, Mark. "Inventing Siberia: visions of the Russian East in the early nineteenth century." American Historical Review 96.3 (1991): 763–794. online
- Batalden, Stephen K. (1997). The Newly Independent States of Eurasia: Handbook of Former Soviet Republics. Contributor Sandra L. Batalden (revised ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0897749405. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Bisher, Jamie (2006). White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. Routledge. ISBN 1135765952. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Bisher, Jamie (2006). White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. Routledge. ISBN 1135765960. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Bobrick, Benson (December 15, 2002). "How the East Was Won". THE NEW YORK TIMES. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
- Black, Jeremy (2008). War and the World: Military Power and the Fate of Continents, 1450–2000. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300147698. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Etkind, Alexander (2013). Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0745673547. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Forsyth, James (1994). A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia's North Asian Colony 1581–1990 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521477719. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Gibson, J. R. "The Significance of Siberia to Tsarist Russia," Canadian Slavonic Papers, 14 (1972): 442–53.
- Kang, Hyeokhweon. Shiau, Jeffrey (ed.). Big Heads and Buddhist Demons: The Korean Military Revolution and Northern Expeditions of 1654 and 1658. Emory Endeavors in World History (Thesis). Vol. 4: Transnational Encounters in Asia (2013 ed.). pp. 1–22. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
- Lantzeff, George Vjatcheslau, and Raymond Henry Fisher. Siberia in the seventeenth century: a study of the colonial administration (U of California Press, 1943).
- Lantzeff, G. V. and R. A. Pierce, Eastward to Empire: Exploration and Conquest on the Russian Open Frontier, to 1750 (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1973)
- Levene, Mark (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation State: Volume 2: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 0857712896. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Mote, Victor L. (1998). Siberia: worlds Apart. Westview series on the post-Soviet republics (illustrated ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 0813312981. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Pesterev, V. (2015). Siberian frontier: the territory of fear. Royal Geographical Society (with IBG), London.
- Stephan, John J. (1996). The Russian Far East: A History (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804727015. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Wood, Alan (2011). Russia's Frozen Frontier: A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East 1581–1991 (illustrated ed.). A&C Black. ISBN 978-0340971246. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
- Yearbook. Contributor International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. 1992. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
Geography, topical maps
- Barnes, Ian. Restless Empire: A Historical Atlas of Russia (2015), copies of historic maps
- Catchpole, Brian. A Map History of Russia (Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1974), new topical maps.
- Channon, John, and Robert Hudson. The Penguin historical atlas of Russia (Viking, 1995), new topical maps.
- Chew, Allen F. An atlas of Russian history: eleven centuries of changing borders (Yale UP, 1970), new topical maps.
- Gilbert, Martin. Atlas of Russian history (Oxford UP, 1993), new topical maps.
- Parker, William Henry. An historical geography of Russia (Aldine, 1968).