Russian conquest of the Caucasus
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| Russian conquest of the Caucasus | |||
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| Part of the Western Asia | |||
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| Territorial changes |
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Supported by:
French Empire (1807–10)
Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (1800–01)
Qajar Iran (1804–13, 1826–28)
French Empire (1807)
British Empire (1809–13, 1826–28)
Ottoman Empire (1806–12, 1828–29, 1854–56)
British Empire (1854–56)
Caucasian Imamate (1828–59)
Circassia (1800–64)
Kabardia (1763–25)
Karachays (1819–29)
Svaneti (1854–1857)
Abkhazia (1855–56)
Paul I (1800–01) Alexander I (1801–25) Nicholas I (1825–55) Alexander II (1855–64)
- Karl Knorring (1800–02)
- Pavel Tsitsianov † (1802–06)
- Ivan Gudovich (1806–09)
- Alexander Tormasov (1809–11)
- Filippo Paulucci (1811–12)
- Nikolay Rtishchev (1812–16)
- Aleksey Yermolov(1816–27)
- Ivan Paskevich (1827–31)
- Georg Andreas von Rosen (1831–38)
- Yevgeny Golovin (1838–42)
- Aleksander Neidgardt (1842–44)
- Mikhail Vorontsov (1844–54)
- Nikolay Muravyov-Amursky (1854–56)
- Aleksandr Baryatinsky (1856–62)
- Michael Nikolaevich (1862–64)
George XII (1800) Prince David (1800–01) Fath-Ali Shah (1804–13, 1826–28)
- Abbas Mirza (1804–13; 1826–28)
Selim III (1800–07) Mustafa IV (1807–08) Mahmud II
(1808–12, 1828–29) Abdulmejid I (1853–55)
Solomon II (1800–04)
Grigol Dadiani (1800–02, 1802–03)- Tariel Dadiani (1802)
- Aslan-Bey Shervashidze(1808–10)
Konstantine (1854–57) Mikhail (1855–56)
Diamond=Early Russian fort;
X=Free mountaineers
Yellow circle=Khanate from Persia.
Yellow dot=Georgia from Persia
Red dot=Georgia from Turkey
Red circle= from Turkey
Red square 1878-1918
The Russian conquest of the Caucasus mainly occurred between 1800 and 1864. The Russian Empire sought to control the region between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. South of the mountains was the territory that is modern Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Iran and Turkey. North of the mountains was the North Caucasus region of modern Russia. The difficult conquest of the intervening mountains is known as the Caucasian War. Multiple wars were fought against the local rulers of the regions, as well as the dominant powers, the Ottoman Empire and Qajar Iran, for control. By 1864 the last regions were brought under Russian control.
Early history
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Russians first appeared in the Caucasus region in the 9th century when some
From the mid-16th century, there was an isolated group of
During the so-called
Underlying all of this was the slow and steady expansion of the Russian population southward from its original heartland in
South of the mountains
Russia annexed eastern Georgia in 1800. By 1806,
Background
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From the days of the Roman Empire,
Annexation of Eastern Georgia
| This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2021) |
(Tiflis)
Yellow circle=Khanate sub Persia
Yellow dot=Georgia sub Persia
Red dot=Georgia sub Turkey
Red circle=Turkish, Anchor=Turkish coastal fort.
In 1762,
In the summer of 1800
First years
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Russian officials in Georgia were the envoy Peter Ivanovich Kovalensky and Generals Lazarev and Gotthard Johann von Knorring. In May 1801 the heir to the throne was removed and Lazarev became head of a provisional government with Knorring as commander in chief. In April 1802 the nobles took an oath to the Russian crown. Kovalensky wrote to the Shah demanding that Persia renounce all claims to Georgia. Fath Ali replied that eastern Georgia had always been Persian and announced his intention to send 60000 soldiers north.
From sea to sea: Tsitsianov (1803–1806)
In September 1802
Unification of Georgia: In December 1803 the western Principality of Mingrelia became a Russian vassal. The Kingdom of Imereti now had Russians on both sides. After some military pressure, in April 1804 it became a Russian protectorate. Much of Georgia was now reunited after 400 years. The coastal forts like Poti remained Turkish. In March 1805 an expedition captured the Turkish fort of Anaklia on the Abkhaz border. Under Ottoman threat, Tsitsianov withdrew, calling it the unauthorised action of a subordinate. In 1810, Russia put its client on the throne of the Principality of Abkhazia.
Push east and south: In the spring of 1803, he subdued the
The disaster of Tsitsianov's death and Zavalivshin's apparent cowardice was retrieved by General Glazenap, who commanded the Line. He crossed the Aktash country to Tarki where the Shamkhal joined him. Knowing that the khan of Derbent was unpopular, the Shamkhal sent agents to stir up trouble. When the Russians crossed the border the khan was expelled by his own subjects and Derbent was occupied for the fourth and last time (22 June 1806). The campaign was interrupted by the new commander-in-chief Gudovich, who was perhaps growing incompetent. Glazenap was placed under General Bulgakov and it was Bulgakov who received the surrender of Quba and Baku.
Russia now held the area between the Black and Caspian Seas and had provoked a war with Persia.
War with Persia and Turkey (1804–1813)
During this period Russia was at war with
The war with Turkey is of no concern since it left the border unchanged, although Russia did retain the Black Sea port of Sukhum-Kale. Russia might have accomplished something, but its soldiers were busy holding down the new-won Caucasus, fighting the Persians, fighting the Turks on the opposite side of the Black Sea, and watching Napoleon. Apart from military heroics, its main importance was to tie down troops that could have been used against Persia.
The first two years of the Persian war involved the conquest of the Khanates. In 1804, Russia took Ganja but was defeated by the Persians when it tried to take Yerevan. Next year it took Shaki and Karabakh. Persia sent an army to rescue Karabakh and was defeated. By early 1806 Shirvan and the Caspian coast were taken. Russia now had all the Persian territory it would ever get, except Talysh, Yerevan, and Nakhichevan.
The Persian front became quiet when the Turkish war started. In 1808, Gudovich failed to take Yerevan and resigned. In 1812, Abbas Mirza invaded eastern Karabakh, defeating the Russian garrisons. Pyotr Kotlyarevsky was sent east, defeated the Persians at Aslanduz, crossed the steppe and bloodily captured the capital of Talysh. In 1813, Persia signed the Treaty of Gulistan which recognized the Russian possession of the khanates.
Internally, Imereti, Guria and Abkhazia were annexed or brought under more complete control, thereby completing the second phase of the unification of Georgia. A rebellion in eastern Georgia was put down. In 1811, the Russians were defeated in Quba and stormed the capital of the Kureen khanate. In 1812, the Ossets were driven back from Tiflis and a Dagestani army under
The age of Yermolov (1816–1827)
Russia, having gained control of the Transcaucasus and the Caspian coast, attention now turned to the intervening mountains. This meant primarily the high plateau of Dagestan and forest belt on the north slope of the mountains. His first concern was to strengthen the northern Line and push it further south. Three new forts were built: Grozny in 1818, Vnezapnaya in 1819 and Burnaya on the mountain above Tarki in 1821. They were connected by a line of smaller forts.
Yellow=major khanate
Blue=minor khanate, principality or league
Black diamond=new fort
D=Dadi_Yurt: G=Gerzel: K=Kubachi
In 1818, the Dagestanis saw what was coming and formed an alliance: Avaria, Mekhtuli, Karakaitag, Tabassaran, Kazikumukh and Akusha. This led to the first Russian campaign into mountain Dagestan. Pestel advanced to Bashli in Karakaitag and was forced back to Derbent with a loss of 500 men. Yermolov moved south from Tarki to Mekhtulil, sacked the abandoned Paraul, stormed the capital (Djengutai) and abolished the Mekhtuli khanate. Bashli was retaken and destroyed and Yermolov returned to the Line. In the summer of 1819 the mountaineers rose again, mainly in the south.
About this time a number of eastern Chechens drove off some horses near Vnezapnaya. Yermolov chose to drive them back to their own country. On 15 September Dadi-Yurt was bloodily captured[3] and the remaining clansmen fled west to the mountains. In November Yermolov and Madatov attacked Akusha. The elders came out to parley and were kept talking until late at night. When they left the Russians made a flanking maneuver and defeated them at Lavashi the next morning. The Akusha people, who had once defeated Nadir Shah, submitted and kept faith for seven years. In June 1820 it was the turn of Kazikumukh. Matadov crossed the mountains from Shirvan and defeated an estimated 20000 men near Khosrek 23 km southeast of Kumukh. The khan fled to his capital but the inhabitants shut the gates against him and surrendered to the Russians. Leaving Kumukh the Russians received the submission of Kubachi, a free community famous for its weapon makers. Yermolov reported to the Tsar that the subjugation of Dagestan was now complete, even though the far western strip had not been touched.
Shirvan was annexed on 30 August 1820, the old khan fleeing to Persia. Yermolov spent the whole of 1821 in Russia. The
In 1824, a man named Beibulat started a new rebellion. He was supported by a holy man who claimed to have been visited by an angel. The rebellion spread from the Sulak to the Sunzha. General Grekov, a man reputedly harsher than Yermolov, marched hither and thither but could not suppress it. On 9 July 1825 2000 rebels captured Amir-Haji-Yurt (on the Terek just east of Dadi-Yurt) and killed most of the garrison. Next day they besieged Gerzel. On the 15th it was relieved by Grekov and Lissanevich. The two generals demanded that the local leaders come to the fort to offer submission. 300 arrived, many of them armed, but no precautions were taken. Lassanevich began abusing them in the local language and calling out names from a list. The first two surrendered their kinzhals, but the third, Uchar Haji, refused to budge. When Grekov tried to disarm him by force Uchar stabbed him in the stomach killing him on the spot and then turned on Lissanevich before he was cut down. The dying Lissanevich cried out “kill them!” and the soldiers fired on the fleeing natives, killing most of them. Yermolov arrived from Tiflis with 7000 reinforcements, rearranged the fortifications, but little fighting took place. In early 1826 Yermolov engaged in the usual village-burning, forest-cutting, and skirmishing and the rebellion seemed to go quiet.
In December 1825 Alexander I died and was replaced by Nicholas I who seems to have been somewhat hostile to Yermolov. In July 1826 the Persians invaded Karabakh and Ganja. Yermolov, who was happy to fight tribesmen hesitated to attack the Persian army and asked Nicholas for two divisions. Nicholas sent one division and told Yermolov to invade Yerevan. Yermolov replied that this was impossible and Nicholas replied by sending out Ivan Paskevich. The two could not cooperate, Paskevich had the support of the Tsar and in late March 1827 Yermolov resigned.
War again (1826–1829)
In this period Russia again fought the two Muslim powers.
The
Later (1830–1994)
Attention now turned to the
Caspian coast
The west coast of the Caspian was held by a number of khanates nominally subject to Persia. After two abortive attempts, the coast was taken by Russia in 1805 and 1806. The southernmost khanate, Talysh, was not taken until 1826.
The east coast of the Caspian is mostly desert and need not concern us.[
From the mid 16th century there was an isolated group of Cossacks
By place
- Terek River: The Terek Cossackswere settled here from perhaps 1520 or 1563. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries it was the nominal border between Russia and Persia, although neither empire had much control over the region.
- Sulak River: Russia held the Holy Cross Fort in 1722–35.
- Tarki was closest to Russia and far from Persia. In 1594 Tarki was captured by Boyar Khvorostin in support of a Georgian king, but he was driven off. The Shamkhalate of Tarki separated from Gazikumukh in 1642. In 1668 Stenka Razin was defeated by the Shamkhal. In 1722 Peter the Great was admitted to Tarki. In 1786 it accepted nominal Russian sovereignty. In 1806 the Shamkhal supported the Russian attack on Derbent. In 1821 the Russians built Fort Burnaya on the rocks above Tarki. In 1831 the town was briefly occupied by Kazi Mulla. In 1839 Burnaya was moved downhill to Nezovoye and in 1844 or before the port of Petrovsk was built which grew into Makhachkala, the current capital of Dagestan. The Shamkhalate was abolished in 1867.
- Kaitag, Karakaitag or Qaytaq is not well documented in English. Its ruler was called the Utsmi and its chief towns Bashli and Kayakent. During Peter the Great's invasion, he sent four envoys to Kaitag. The Utsmi killed them and gathered 16000 men to resist. They were defeated at "Utemish a few miles inland from Kayakent" and all the prisoners were hanged in revenge for the murder of the envoys. Around 1774 the Utsmi captured Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin, who died in captivity. Catherine sent General Medem on a punitive expedition which also captured Derbent (March 1775). In 1818 Colonel Pestel tried to take Bashli and was driven back to Derbent with a loss of 500 men. Bashli was taken by Valerian Madatov, the Utsmi fled to Akusha, his subjects renounced him and they took an oath to the Czar.
- Aktashcountry to Tarki and gained the Shamkhal's support. Shaykh Ali being unpopular with his subjects, the Shamkhal sent emissaries to stir up trouble. When the Russians crossed the border a rebellion broke out, the khan fled and Derbent was occupied without a shot (22 June 1806). From then on it was a Russian base and refuge when things were difficult in the interior.
- Quba: Fatali Khan(1758–89) it greatly expanded. It submitted to Zubov in 1796. About 1804 the Quba Khan broke an attempted siege of Baku. It submitted to Gazenap's successor in 1806 and was annexed along with Baku.
- Baku: Baku was practically a city-state, had the only good harbor on the west coast, and was the foremost commercial center in the western Caucasus. In 1723-35 it was held by Russia. The Baku Khanate lasted from then until 1806. In 1768/72 it was ruled by Quba. In 1796 it was taken by Zubov. In summer 1805 the Caspian Flotilla besieged Baku but was driven off by the Khan of Quba. Tsitsianov was killed here while accepting a feigned surrender. (Both times there was a mass exodus from the city because of what happened in Ganja.) Russian honor was retrieved by Gazenap and Baku and Quba surrendered to his successor Bulgakov, the khan having fled (September 1806).
- The an important state heresince the ninth century. It and Shaki had Sunni khans and there was a religious conflict early in the century. Submitted in 1723. Controlled by Quba in 1768–89. Submitted to Agha Mohammad in 1795. In 1796 Zubov seized the capital and the khan took shelter in a mountain stronghold. In late 1805 Tsitsianov made it a Russian vassal while marching east to Baku. Persia recognized Russian rule in 1813. Yermolov abolished it in August 1820, the khan fleeing to Persia.
- The took its capital in 1813. By the Treaty of Gulistan(1813) Persia ceded everything north of Talysh. Its history from 1813 to 1826 is ill-documented. Russia kept part of its territory and the fortress of Lenkoran. The khanate existed but was hostile to Persia. It became a Russian province in 1826
Black Sea coast
Arrows=Kuban River and North Caucasus Line of Cossack settlements
-Kale
Ab= Abkhazia
The east coast of the
The Georgian coast belongs to the history of Georgia while the Circassian coast was the southern flank of the Russo-Circassian War which Velyaminov described as a great siege. Our main concern is with the fortified ports along the coast. From these, the Ottomans could support the Circassians with guns and propaganda. Potentially they could have landed troops, but this only happened twice (Abkhazia in 1855 and 1877). The Russians needed to take the forts to tighten the ring around Circassia. The most important were Poti which led to Georgia and Anapa in the north which led to the steppes and the main body of Circassians. Any attack on the ports would be an act of war against the Ottoman Empire. Such a war would be fought mainly in the Balkan region. At war's end, the ports would be used as bargaining chips by diplomats dealing with far more important matters on the opposite side of the Black Sea.
History
The ancient Greeks founded colonies all around the Black Sea coast. These exported grain and slaves to Byzantium and beyond, a pattern that continued in various ways until the Russian conquest. Around 1700 the whole area was Turkish. Western Georgia was ruled by Turkish vassals. The Turks dominated the semi-independent
In the
were annexed. Kars returned to Turkey after the Russian Revolution.By place
- Kerch on the west side of the Kerch Strait was annexed in 1774.
- Taman to the east of the strait was annexed in 1783 along with Crimea.
- Russo-Turkish War (1787–92)Russia captured it on the third try and returned it at the end of the war. It surrendered to a naval squadron in 1807 and was returned at the end of the war. In 1828 it fell to a 36-day land and sea siege and remained Russian.
- Novorossiskis on a large bay. The Turks had a fort here called Sujuk-Qale and the Russians won a battle nearby around 1790. In 1838 the Russians built a port for the Black Sea Fleet and it remains a major port.
- Gelendzhik is on a smaller bay. The Turks had a fort here around 1770 and the Russians built one about 1831.
- Tuapse: Fort Velyaminovsky built here in 1838.
- Sochi Russian fort in 1838
- Gagra at the north end of Abkhazia only became important later.
- Sukhum-Kale (Sukhumi) joined Russia along with the rest of Abkhazia in 1810.
- Anaklia is near the south end of Abkhazia. The Russians took it in 1805 but withdrew under Turkish protest. Regained in 1810.
- Redut Kale (Redoubt Kali) was built by Tsitsianov around 1805 after he failed to obtain Poti.
- Rioni Riverwhich drains most of western Georgia. It was unsuccessfully besieged by Todtleben in 1770 during the first Russian military action south of the mountains. It remained Turkish after Russia took Mingrelia in 1803. Tsitsianov tried to negotiate its transfer about 1805. An attempt to take it in 1807 failed. Prince Orbeliani took it in 1809. Returned at end of the war. In 1828 it was captured and kept.
- On the coast south of Poti was Limani, where a Turkish fortified camp was defeated in 1829.
- Fort Saint Nicholas at the mouth of the Choloki Riverwas on the Turkish frontier until the capture of Batum.
- Adjariahad a significant Muslim population and was annexed in 1878. By 1900 it was the terminus of a railroad to Baku and was an important oil port.
- Kars, Erzurum, Trabzond, and the surrounding area remained Turkish. In each of the wars, the Russians pushed into this area and withdrew when peace was made, sometimes keeping a few border forts. The only exception was Kars province which was held from 1878 to 1921.
Mountains
By 1813 Russia held the lowlands south of the mountains. They had no difficulty with the lowlands north of the mountains. To connect them they held the
North of the mountains
In the nineteenth century, the steppe nomads north of the Caucasus were gradually replaced by Russian colonists. At the same time and a little before the North Caucasus Line was formed along the north side of the mountains. This was used as a base to attack the mountaineers and was a center from which the Russian population expanded. For the general area see Black Sea-Caspian Steppe.
Steppe
When the Golden Horde broke up about 1500 the steppe nomads came to be called the Nogai Horde. They were to some degree subjects of the Crimean Khanate which was, in turn, a semi-independent vassal of the Ottoman Empire. In 1557 the Nogais east of Azov broke off and formed the Lesser Nogai Horde, a name that gradually went out of use. Around 1630 the Kalmyks migrated west from Dzungaria and occupied the land around the north end of the Caspian Sea, driving the Nogais south and west. In 1771 a significant part of them returned to Dzungaria and the Nogais expanded east and north. In 1777 Alexander Suvorov was appointed to the western or Kuban half of the Line, Jakobi taking the east half. In 1783 Russia annexed Crimea and thereby took over the Crimeans' claim to rule the Nogais.
According to Baddeley, one of the Potemkins formed a plan to move the Nogais east of the Volga. Suvarov called a great meeting at Yeysk on the Sea of Azov and announced that sovereignty over the Nogais had been transferred from the Crimean Khan to the Russian Czar. The Nogais seemed to accept this, but they soon learned of the resettlement plan and fighting broke out. When they attacked the Russian detachment they were slaughtered. Later other groups of Nogais were defeated.[4] For a more modern version see Kuban Nogai Uprising.
After this English sources become sparse. Tsutsiev's atlas for 1829-1839 shows a group of Nogai south of the great bend of the Kuban which soon disappeared, another group north of Pyatigorsk and another group ("Karanogai") south of the
North Caucasus Line
Impact on Russian literature and politics
The acquisition of new peoples had an invigorating effect on the rest of Russia. According to two Russian historians:
- the culture of Russia and that of the Caucasian peoples interacted in a reciprocally beneficial manner. The turbulent tenor of life in the Caucasus, the mountain peoples' love of freedom, and their willingness to die for independence were felt far beyond the local interaction of the Caucasian peoples and coresident Russians: they injected a potent new spirit into the thinking and creative work of Russia's progressives, strengthened the liberationist aspirations of Russian writers and exiled Decembrists, and influenced distinguished Russian democrats, poets, and prose writers, including Alexander Griboyedov, Alexander Pushkin, Mikhail Lermontov, and Leo Tolstoy. These writers, who generally supported the Caucasian fight for liberation, went beyond the chauvinism of the colonial autocracy and rendered the Caucasian peoples' cultures accessible to the Russian intelligentsia. At the same time, Russian culture exerted an influence on Caucasian cultures, bolstering positive aspects while weakening the impact of the Caucasian peoples' reactionary feudalism and reducing the internecine fighting between tribes and clans.[5]
The Russian takeover contributed to the rise of a body in Russian literature surrounding Caucasian narratives, known as the "Literary Caucasus." This period was markedly noted for shaping Russian perceptions of the Caucasus, and for having including overtones of national identity and empire, appealing largely to nineteenth-century Russian elites.[6] One of the most famous Russian writers focusing on the Caucasus was Alexander Pushkin, whose then-groundbreaking writings on the Caucasus helped shape views of the region for landed Russians.[7]
According to Professor Ronald Grigor Suny:
"Pushkin's evocative poem, "The Prisoner of the Caucasus," was at one and the same time travelogue, ethnography, geography, and even war correspondence. In Pushkin's imaginative geography, the communion with nature "averted the eye from military conquest" and largely disregarded the native peoples of the Caucasus, who represented a vague menace to the Russian's lyrical relationship with the wilderness. His epilogue to the poem celebrated the military conquest of the Caucasus and introduced a dissonant note into his celebration of the purity, generosity, and liberty of the mountaineers."[6]
Some famous works of the Literary Caucasus include:
- The Prisoner of the Caucasus, Alexander Pushkin, 1820–22
- A Journey to Arzrum, Alexander Pushkin, 1835–36
- A Hero of Our Time, Mikhail Lermontov, 1839–41
- The Cossacks, Leo Tolstoy, 1863
- The Prisoner of the Caucasus, Leo Tolstoy, 1872
- Hadji Murat, Leo Tolstoy, 1912
See also
References
- ^ in 1784?, per Charles King, ‘Ghost of Freedom’, page 27, but with no details
- ^ The date is also given as 28dec00 and 08jan01. There may have been several decrees. Wikipedia needs a clear account of why both 1800 and 1801 are given for the annexation of Georgia.
- ^ There is a memorial at 43°24′45″N 46°12′40″E / 43.412575°N 46.211180°E which may commemorate this
- ^ this according to Baddeley, Chapter III, kindle @1179, citing 'Tuzemtsi Severo-Vostochnavo Kazkaza', Petersburg, 1895, which is otherwise obscure. According to the Russian Wikipedia Suvorov was appointed to the Kuban at the end of 1777. In May 1778 he was appointed to Crimea. In August 1782 he was recalled to the Kuban to suppress a Nogai uprising that erupted because of plans to move the Nogais to the Ural. In October he bloodily defeated them on the Laba and the next year led campaigns against other Nogai groups.
- ^ G. L. Bondarevskii, and G. N. Kolbaia, "The Caucasus and Russian Culture." Russian Studies in History 41.2 (2002): 10-15.
- ^ )
- OCLC 667234711.
Further reading
- Atkin, Muriel (1980). Russia and Iran, 1780–1828. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0816609246.
- Baddeley, John F. (1908). The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
- ISBN 978-90-04-44515-4.
- Breyfogle, Nicholas (2005). Heretics and Colonizers: Forging Russia's Empire in the South Caucasus. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801442421.
- ISBN 978-1909382312.
- Jersild, Austin (2003). Orientalism and Empire: North Caucasus Mountain Peoples and the Georgian Frontier, 1845-1917. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0773523296.
- ISBN 978-0195177756.
- Layton, Susan (1995). Russian Literature and Empire: Conquest of the Caucasus from Pushkin to Tolstoy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521444439.
- Tsutsiev, Arthur (2014). Atlas of the Ethno-Political History of the Caucasus. Translated by Nora Seligman Favorov. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300153088.
- Gammer, Moshe. Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan. Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1994. 247 p. — ISBN 978-0714634319