Russian language
Russian | |
---|---|
русский язык L2: 110 million (2020 census)[1] | |
Early forms | Proto-Indo-European
|
Cyrillic (Russian alphabet) Russian Braille | |
Official status | |
Official language in |
As inter-ethnic language but with no official status, or as official on regional level
|
Recognised minority language in | |
Regulated by | Russian Language Institute[21] at the Russian Academy of Sciences |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | ru |
ISO 639-2 | rus |
ISO 639-3 | rus |
Glottolog | russ1263 |
Linguasphere | 53-AAA-ea < 53-AAA-e |
Russian is a majority language Russian is a minority language |
Russian[e] is an East Slavic language, spoken primarily in Russia. It is the native language of the Russians and belongs to the Indo-European language family. It is one of four living East Slavic languages,[f] and is also a part of the larger Balto-Slavic languages. It was the de facto and de jure[23] official language of the former Soviet Union.[24] Russian has remained an official language in independent Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, and is still commonly used as a lingua franca in Ukraine, Moldova, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and to a lesser extent in the Baltic states and Israel.[25][26][27][28] It is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[29]
Russian has over 258 million total speakers worldwide.[30] It is the most spoken Slavic language,[31] and the most spoken native language in Europe,[32] as well as the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia.[31] It is the world's seventh-most spoken language by number of native speakers, and the world's ninth-most spoken language by total number of speakers.[33] Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station,[34] as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.[35]
Russian is written using the
Classification
Russian is an
The vocabulary (mainly abstract and literary words), principles of word formations, and, to some extent, inflections and literary style of Russian have been also influenced by Church Slavonic, a developed and partly Russified form of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic language used by the Russian Orthodox Church. However, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with many different meanings.[citation needed]
Over the course of centuries, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central European languages such as Greek, Latin, Polish, Dutch, German, French, Italian, and English,[39] and to a lesser extent the languages to the south and the east: Uralic, Turkic,[40][41] Persian,[42][43] Arabic, and Hebrew.[44]
According to the
Standard Russian
Feudal divisions and conflicts created obstacles between the Russian principalities before and especially during Mongol rule. This strengthened dialectal differences, and for a while, prevented the emergence of a standardized national language. The formation of the unified and centralized Russian state in the 15th and 16th centuries, and the gradual re-emergence of a common political, economic, and cultural space created the need for a common standard language. The initial impulse for standardization came from the government bureaucracy for the lack of a reliable tool of communication in administrative, legal, and judicial affairs became an obvious practical problem. The earliest attempts at standardizing Russian were made based on the so-called Moscow official or chancery language, during the 15th to 17th centuries.[46] Since then, the trend of language policy in Russia has been standardization in both the restricted sense of reducing dialectical barriers between ethnic Russians, and the broader sense of expanding the use of Russian alongside or in favour of other languages.[46]
The current standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language (современный русский литературный язык – "sovremenny russky literaturny yazyk"). It arose at the beginning of the 18th century with the modernization reforms of the Russian state under the rule of Peter the Great and developed from the Moscow (Middle or Central Russian) dialect substratum under the influence of some of the previous century's Russian chancery language.[46]
Prior to the
After 1917, Marxist linguists had no interest in the multiplicity of peasant dialects and regarded their language as a relic of the rapidly disappearing past that was not worthy of scholarly attention. Nakhimovsky quotes the Soviet academicians A.M Ivanov and L.P Yakubinsky, writing in 1930:
The language of peasants has a motley diversity inherited from feudalism. On its way to becoming proletariat peasantry brings to the factory and the industrial plant their local peasant dialects with their phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary, and the very process of recruiting workers from peasants and the mobility of the worker population generate another process: the liquidation of peasant inheritance by way of leveling the particulars of local dialects. On the ruins of peasant multilingual, in the context of developing heavy industry, a qualitatively new entity can be said to emerge—the general language of the working class... capitalism has the tendency of creating the general urban language of a given society.[49]
By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the compulsory education system that was established by the
Geographic distribution
In 2010, there were 259.8 million speakers of Russian in the world: in Russia – 137.5 million, in the
Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a popular choice for both Russian as a second language (RSL) and native speakers in Russia, and in many former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics.[53]
Europe
In
In Estonia Russian is spoken by 29.6% of the population according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook,[57] and is officially considered a foreign language.[54] School education in the Russian language is a very contentious point in Estonian politics and as of 2022 the parliament has approved to close up all Russian language schools and kindergartens by the school year. The transition to only Estonian language schools/kindergartens will start in the school year.[58]
In Latvia, Russian is officially considered a foreign language.[54] 55% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 26% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55] On February 18, 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.[59] According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.[60] Starting in 2019, instruction in Russian will be gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, and in general instruction in Latvian public high schools.[61][62] On 29 September 2022, Saeima passed in the final reading amendments that state that all schools and kindergartens in the country are to transition to education in Latvian. From 2025, all children will be taught in Latvian only.[63][64] On 28 September 2023, Latvian deputies approved The National Security Concept, according to which from January 1, 2026, all content created by Latvian public media (including LSM) should be only in Latvian or a language that "belongs to the European cultural space". The financing of Russian-language content by the state will cease, which the concept says create a "unified information space". However, one inevitable consequence would be the closure of public media broadcasts in Russian on LTV and Latvian Radio, as well as the closure of LSM's Russian-language service.[65]
In Lithuania, Russian has no official or legal status, but the use of the language has some presence in certain areas. A large part of the population, especially the older generations, can speak Russian as a foreign language.[66] However, English has replaced Russian as lingua franca in Lithuania and around 80% of young people speak English as their first foreign language.[67] In contrast to the other two Baltic states, Lithuania has a relatively small Russian-speaking minority (5.0% as of 2008).[68] According to the 2011 Lithuanian census, Russian was the native language for 7.2% of the population.[69]
In Moldova, Russian was considered to be the language of interethnic communication under a Soviet-era law.[54] On 21 January 2021, the Constitutional Court of Moldova declared the law unconstitutional and deprived Russian of the status of the language of interethnic communication.[70][71] 50% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 19% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55] According to the 2014 Moldovan census, Russians accounted for 4.1% of Moldova's population, 9.4% of the population declared Russian as their native language, and 14.5% said they usually spoke Russian.[72]
According to the
In
In the 20th century, Russian was a mandatory language taught in the schools of the members of the old Warsaw Pact and in other countries that used to be satellites of the USSR. According to the Eurobarometer 2005 survey,[82] fluency in Russian remains fairly high (20–40%) in some countries, in particular former Warsaw Pact countries.
Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe. These have been fed by several waves of immigrants since the beginning of the 20th century, each with its own flavor of language. The United Kingdom, Germany, Finland, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Norway, and Austria have significant Russian-speaking communities.[citation needed]
Asia
In Armenia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.[54] 30% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 2% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55]
In Azerbaijan, Russian has no official status, but is a lingua franca of the country.[54] 26% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 5% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work.[55]
In
In Georgia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.[54] Russian is the language of 9% of the population according to the World Factbook.[83] Ethnologue cites Russian as the country's de facto working language.[84]
In Kazakhstan, Russian is not a state language, but according to article 7 of the Constitution of Kazakhstan its usage enjoys equal status to that of the Kazakh language in state and local administration.[54] The 2009 census reported that 10,309,500 people, or 84.8% of the population aged 15 and above, could read and write well in Russian, and understand the spoken language.[85] In October 2023, Kazakhstan drafted a media law aimed at increasing the use of the Kazakh language over Russian, the law stipulates that the share of the state language on television and radio should increase from 50% to 70%, at a rate of 5% per year, starting in 2025.[86]
In Kyrgyzstan, Russian is a co-official language per article 5 of the Constitution of Kyrgyzstan.[54] The 2009 census states that 482,200 people speak Russian as a native language, or 8.99% of the population.[87] Additionally, 1,854,700 residents of Kyrgyzstan aged 15 and above fluently speak Russian as a second language, or 49.6% of the population in the age group.[87]
In Tajikistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication under the Constitution of Tajikistan and is permitted in official documentation.[54] 28% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 7% used it as the main language with family, friends or at work.[55] The World Factbook notes that Russian is widely used in government and business.[57]
In Turkmenistan, Russian lost its status as the official lingua franca in 1996.[54] Among 12%[57] of the population who grew up in the Soviet era can speak Russian, other generations of citizens that do not have any knowledge of Russian. Primary and secondary education by Russian is almost non-existent.[88] Nevertheless, the Turkmen state press and newspaper Neytralny Turkmenistan regularly publish material version in Russian-language, and there are schools like Joint Turkmen-Russian Secondary School.[citation needed]
In Uzbekistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication.[7][8][9] It has some official roles, being permitted in official documentation and is the lingua franca of the country and the language of the elite.[54][89] Russian is spoken by 14.2% of the population according to an undated estimate from the World Factbook.[57]
In 2005, Russian was the most widely taught foreign language in Mongolia,[90] and was compulsory in Year 7 onward as a second foreign language in 2006.[91]
Around 1.5 million Israelis spoke Russian as of 2017.
Russian is also spoken as a second language by a small number of people in Afghanistan.[94]
In Vietnam, Russian has been added in the elementary curriculum along with Chinese and Japanese and were named as "first foreign languages" for Vietnamese students to learn, on equal footing with English.[95]
North America
The Russian language was first introduced in North America when
In the second half of the 20th century, Russian was the most popular foreign language in Cuba. Besides being taught at universities and schools, there were also educational programs on the radio and TV. An estimated 200,000 people speak the Russian language in Cuba, on the account that more than 23,000 Cubans who took higher studies in the former Soviet Union and later in Russia, and another important group of people who studied at military schools and technologists.[citation needed]
As an international language
Russian is one of the official languages (or has similar status and interpretation must be provided into Russian) of the following:
- United Nations
- International Atomic Energy Agency
- World Health Organization
- International Civil Aviation Organization
- UNESCO
- World Intellectual Property Organization
- International Telecommunication Union
- World Meteorological Organization
- Food and Agriculture Organization
- International Fund for Agricultural Development
- International Criminal Court
- International Olympic Committee
- Universal Postal Union
- World Bank
- Commonwealth of Independent States
- Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
- Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
- Eurasian Economic Community
- Collective Security Treaty Organization
- Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
- International Organization for Standardization
- International Mathematical Olympiad
The Russian language is also one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station – NASA astronauts who serve alongside Russian cosmonauts usually take Russian language courses. This practice goes back to the Apollo–Soyuz mission, which first flew in 1975.[citation needed]
In March 2013, Russian was found to be the second-most used language on websites after English. Russian was the language of 5.9% of all websites, slightly ahead of German and far behind English (54.7%). Russian was used not only on 89.8% of .ru sites, but also on 88.7% of sites with the former Soviet Union domain .su. Websites in former Soviet Union member states also used high levels of Russian: 79.0% in Ukraine, 86.9% in Belarus, 84.0% in Kazakhstan, 79.6% in Uzbekistan, 75.9% in Kyrgyzstan and 81.8% in Tajikistan. However, Russian was the sixth-most used language on the top 1,000 sites, behind English, Chinese, French, German, and Japanese.[98]
Dialects
Northern dialects 1. Arkhangelsk dialect 2. Olonets dialect 3. Novgorod dialect 4. Viatka dialect 5. Vladimir dialect | Central dialects 7. Tver dialect Southern dialects 8. Orel (Don) dialect 9. Ryazan dialect 10. Tula dialect 11. Smolensk dialect Other 12. Northern Russian dialect with Belarusian influences 14. Steppe dialect of Ukrainian with Russian influences (Balachka) |
Russian is a rather homogeneous language, in dialectal variation, due to the early political centralization under Moscow's rule, compulsory education, mass migration from rural to urban areas in the 20th century, and other factors. The standard language is used in written and spoken form almost everywhere in the country, from Kaliningrad and Saint Petersburg in the West to Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the East, the enormous distance between notwithstanding.[citation needed]
Despite
The
In the
The city of
Among the first to study Russian dialects was Lomonosov in the 18th century. In the 19th, Vladimir Dal compiled the first dictionary that included dialectal vocabulary. Detailed mapping of Russian dialects began at the turn of the 20th century. In modern times, the monumental Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language (Диалектологический атлас русского языка – Dialektologichesky atlas russkogo yazyka), was published in three folio volumes 1986–1989, after four decades of preparatory work.[citation needed]
Comparison with other Slavic languages
During the Proto-Slavic (Common Slavic) times all Slavs spoke one mutually intelligible language or group of dialects.[103] There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, and a moderate degree of it in all modern Slavic languages, at least at the conversational level.[104][105]
Derived languages
- Cossacksin 1793 and is based on the so-called "southwest Russian" dialect (Ukrainian dialect). During the Russification of the aforementioned regions in the 1920s to 1950s, it was replaced by the Russian language.
- Esperanto has some words of Russian and Slavic origin and some features of its grammar could be derived from Russian.[106]
- argotof ancient origin, with Russian grammar, but with distinct vocabulary
- Lojban, Russian is one of its six source languages, weighed for the number of Russian speakers in 1985.[107]
- Aleutnouns and Russian verbs
- padonki of Runet
- Quelia, a macaronic language with Russian-derived basic structure and part of the lexicon(mainly nouns and verbs) borrowed from German
- Runglish, a Russian-English pidgin. This word is also used by English speakers to describe the way in which Russians attempt to speak English using Russian morphology or syntax.
- Russenorsk, an extinct pidgin language with mostly Russian vocabulary and mostly Norwegian grammar, used for communication between Russians and Norwegian traders in the Pomor trade in Finnmark and the Kola Peninsula
- Surzhyk, a range of mixed (macaronic) sociolects of Ukrainian and Russian languages used in certain regions of Ukraine and adjacent lands.
- Trasianka, a heavily russified variety of Belarusian used by a large portion of the rural population in Belarus
- Taimyr Pidgin Russian, spoken by the Nganasan on the Taimyr Peninsula
Alphabet
Russian is written using a Cyrillic alphabet. The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The following table gives their forms, along with IPA values for each letter's typical sound:
Аа /a/ |
Бб /b/ |
Вв /v/ |
Гг /ɡ/ |
Дд /d/ |
Ее /je/ |
Ёё /jo/ |
Жж /ʐ/ |
Зз /z/ |
Ии /i/ |
Й й/j/ |
Кк /k/ |
Лл /l/ |
Мм /m/ |
Нн /n/ |
Оо /o/ |
Пп /p/ |
Рр /r/ |
Сс /s/ |
Тт /t/ |
Уу /u/ |
Фф /f/ |
Хх /x/ |
Цц /ts/ |
Чч /tɕ/ |
Шш /ʂ/ |
Щ щ/ɕː/ |
Ъъ /-/ |
Ыы /ɨ/ |
Ьь /ʲ/ |
Ээ /e/ |
Юю /ju/ |
Яя /ja/ |
Older letters of the Russian alphabet include ⟨ѣ⟩, which merged to ⟨е⟩ (/je/ or /ʲe/); ⟨і⟩ and ⟨ѵ⟩, which both merged to ⟨и⟩ (/i/); ⟨ѳ⟩, which merged to ⟨ф⟩ (/f/); ⟨ѫ⟩, which merged to ⟨у⟩ (/u/); ⟨ѭ⟩, which merged to ⟨ю⟩ (/ju/ or /ʲu/); and ⟨ѧ⟩ and ⟨ѩ⟩, which later were graphically reshaped into ⟨я⟩ and merged phonetically to /ja/ or /ʲa/. While these older letters have been abandoned at one time or another, they may be used in this and related articles. The yers ⟨ъ⟩ and ⟨ь⟩ originally indicated the pronunciation of ultra-short or reduced /ŭ/, /ĭ/.
Transliteration
Because of many technical restrictions in computing and also because of the unavailability of Cyrillic keyboards abroad, Russian is often transliterated using the Latin alphabet. For example, мороз ('frost') is transliterated moroz, and мышь ('mouse'), mysh or myš'. Once commonly used by the majority of those living outside Russia, transliteration is being used less frequently by Russian-speaking typists in favor of the extension of Unicode character encoding, which fully incorporates the Russian alphabet. Free programs are available offering this Unicode extension, which allow users to type Russian characters, even on Western 'QWERTY' keyboards.[108]
Computing
The Russian alphabet has many systems of character encoding. KOI8-R was designed by the Soviet government and was intended to serve as the standard encoding. This encoding was and still is widely used in UNIX-like operating systems. Nevertheless, the spread of MS-DOS and OS/2 (IBM866), Classic Mac OS (ISO/IEC 8859-5) and Microsoft Windows (CP1251) meant the proliferation of many different encodings as de facto standards, with Windows-1251 becoming a de facto standard in Russian Internet and e-mail communication during the period of roughly 1995–2005.[citation needed]
All the obsolete 8-bit encodings are rarely used in the communication protocols and text-exchange data formats, having been mostly replaced with UTF-8. A number of encoding conversion applications were developed. "iconv" is an example that is supported by most versions of Linux, macOS and some other operating systems; but converters are rarely needed unless accessing texts created more than a few years ago.[citation needed]
In addition to the modern Russian alphabet, Unicode (and thus UTF-8) encodes the Early Cyrillic alphabet (which is very similar to the Greek alphabet), and all other Slavic and non-Slavic but Cyrillic-based alphabets.[citation needed]
Orthography
The current spelling follows the
According to the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, an optional acute accent (знак ударения) may, and sometimes should, be used to mark stress. For example, it is used to distinguish between otherwise identical words, especially when context does not make it obvious: замо́к (zamók – "lock") – за́мок (zámok – "castle"), сто́ящий (stóyashchy – "worthwhile") – стоя́щий (stoyáshchy – "standing"), чудно́ (chudnó – "this is odd") – чу́дно (chúdno – "this is marvellous"), молоде́ц (molodéts – "well done!") – мо́лодец (mólodets – "fine young man"), узна́ю (uznáyu – "I shall learn it") – узнаю́ (uznayú – "I recognize it"), отреза́ть (otrezát – "to be cutting") – отре́зать (otrézat – "to have cut"); to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words, especially personal and family names, like афе́ра (aféra, "scandal, affair"), гу́ру (gúru, "guru"), Гарси́я (García), Оле́ша (Olésha), Фе́рми (Fermi), and to show which is the stressed word in a sentence, for example Ты́ съел печенье? (Tý syel pechenye? – "Was it you who ate the cookie?") – Ты съе́л печенье? (Ty syél pechenye? – "Did you eat the cookie?) – Ты съел пече́нье? (Ty syel pechénye? "Was it the cookie you ate?"). Stress marks are mandatory in lexical dictionaries and books for children or Russian learners.[citation needed]
Phonology
The
The language possesses five vowels (or six, under the St. Petersburg Phonological School), which are written with different letters depending on whether the preceding consonant is palatalized. The consonants typically come in plain vs. palatalized pairs, which are traditionally called hard and soft. The hard consonants are often velarized, especially before front vowels, as in Irish and Marshallese. The standard language, based on the Moscow dialect, possesses heavy stress and moderate variation in pitch. Stressed vowels are somewhat lengthened, while unstressed vowels tend to be reduced to near-close vowels or an unclear schwa.[citation needed]
The Russian syllable structure can be quite complex, with both initial and final consonant clusters of up to four consecutive sounds. Using a formula with V standing for the nucleus (vowel) and C for each consonant, the maximal structure can be described as follows:
(C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C)
However, Russian has a constraint on syllabification such that syllables cannot span multiple morphemes.[citation needed]
Clusters of four consonants are not very common, especially within a morpheme. Some examples are: взгляд ([vzglʲat] vzglyad, 'glance'), государств ([gəsʊˈdarstf] gosudarstv, 'of the states'), строительств ([strɐˈitʲɪlʲstf] stroitelstv, 'of the constructions').[citation needed]
Consonants
Labial | Alveolar /Dental |
Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
plain | pal. | plain | pal. | plain | pal. | plain | pal. | |||
Nasal | m | mʲ | n
|
nʲ | ||||||
Stop
|
voiceless | p | pʲ | t
|
tʲ | k | kʲ | |||
voiced | b | bʲ | d
|
dʲ | ɡ | ɡʲ | ||||
Affricate | t͡s | (t͡sʲ) | t͡ɕ | |||||||
Fricative | voiceless | f | fʲ | s | sʲ | ʂ | ɕː | x | xʲ | |
voiced | v | vʲ | z | zʲ | ʐ | (ʑː) | (ɣ) | (ɣʲ) | ||
Approximant | ɫ
|
lʲ | j | |||||||
Trill | r
|
rʲ |
Russian is notable for its distinction based on
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | (ɨ) | u |
Mid | e | o | |
Open | a |
Russian has five or six vowels in stressed syllables, /i, u, e, o, a/, and in some analyses /ɨ/, but in most cases these vowels have merged to only two to four vowels when unstressed: /i, u, a/ (or /ɨ, u, a/) after hard consonants and /i, u/ after soft ones. These vowels have several
Grammar
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2014) |
Russian has preserved an
- a highly fusional morphology
- a syntax that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements:[111]
- a polished vernacular foundation;[clarification needed]
- a Church Slavonicinheritance;
- a Western European style.[clarification needed]
The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one but continues to preserve characteristic forms. The dialects show various non-standard grammatical features,[111] some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms since discarded by the literary language.[citation needed]
In terms of actual grammar, there are three
Vocabulary
The number of listed words or entries in some of the major dictionaries published during the past two centuries, are as follows:[113][114]
Work | Year | Words | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
Academic dictionary, I Ed. | 1789–1794 | 43,257 | Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary. |
Academic dictionary, II Ed | 1806–1822 | 51,388 | Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary. |
Academic dictionary, III Ed. | 1847 | 114,749 | Russian and Church Slavonic with Old Russian vocabulary. |
Dahl 's) |
1880–1882 | 195,844 | 44,000 entries lexically grouped; attempt to catalogue the full vernacular language. Contains many dialectal, local, and obsolete words. |
Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (Ushakov 's) |
1934–1940 | 85,289 | Current language with some archaisms. |
Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language (Ozhegov's) | 1950–1965 1991 (2nd ed.) |
120,480 | "Full" 17-volumed dictionary of the contemporary language. The second 20-volumed edition was begun in 1991, but not all volumes have been finished. |
Lopatin's dictionary | 1999–2013 | ≈200,000 | Orthographic, current language, several editions |
Great Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language | 1998–2009 | ≈130,000 | Current language, the dictionary has many subsequent editions from the first one of 1998. |
Russian Wiktionary | October 11, 2021 | 442,533 | Number of entries in the category Русский язык (Russian language) |
History and literary language
No single periodization is universally accepted, but the history of the Russian language is sometimes divided into the following periods:[115][116][117]
- Old Russian or Old East Slavic (until the 14th or 15th century)
- Middle Russian (14th or 15th century until the 17th or 18th century)
- Modern Russian (17th century or 18th century to the present)
The history of the Russian language is also divided into Old Russian from the 11th to 17th centuries, followed by Modern Russian.[117]
Judging by the historical records, by approximately 1000 AD the predominant ethnic group over much of modern European Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus was the Eastern branch of the
Dialectal differentiation accelerated after the breakup of Kievan Rus' in approximately 1100. On the territories of modern Belarus and Ukraine emerged
The official language in Moscow and Novgorod, and later, in the growing Muscovy, was
The political reforms of
The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of
Russian text | Pronunciation | Transliteration | English Translation |
---|---|---|---|
Зи́мний ве́чер | [ˈzʲimnʲɪj ˈvʲetɕɪr] | Zímnij véčer | Winter evening |
Бу́ря мгло́ю не́бо кро́ет, | [ˈburʲə ˈmɡɫoju ˈnʲɛbə ˈkroɪt] | Búrja mglóju nébo krójet, | The storm covers the sky with a haze |
Ви́хри сне́жные крутя́; | [ˈvʲixrʲɪ ˈsʲnʲɛʐnɨɪ krʊˈtʲa] | Víhri snéžnyje krutjá, | As it swirls heaps of snow in the air. |
То, как зверь, она́ заво́ет, | [ˈto kaɡ zvʲerʲ ɐˈna zɐˈvoɪt] | To, kak zveŕ, oná zavójet, | At times, it howls like a beast, |
То запла́чет, как дитя́, | [ˈto zɐˈpɫatɕɪt, kaɡ dʲɪˈtʲa] | To zapláčet, kak ditjá, | And then cries like a child; |
То по кро́вле обветша́лой | [ˈto pɐˈkrovlʲɪ ɐbvʲɪtˈʂaɫəj] | To po króvle obvetšáloj | At times, on top of the threadbare roof, |
Вдруг соло́мой зашуми́т, | [ˈvdruk sɐˈɫoməj zəʂʊˈmʲit] | Vdrug solómoj zašumít, | It suddenly rustles straw, |
То, как пу́тник запозда́лый, | [ˈto ˈkak ˈputʲnʲɪɡ zəpɐˈzdaɫɨj] | To, kak pútnik zapozdályj | And then, like a late traveller, |
К нам в око́шко застучи́т. | [ˈknam vɐˈkoʂkə zəstʊˈtɕit] | K nam v okóško zastučít. | It knocks upon our window. |
The political upheavals of the early 20th century and the wholesale changes of political ideology gave written Russian its modern appearance after the
During the Soviet period, the policy toward the languages of the various other ethnic groups fluctuated in practice. Though each of the constituent republics had its own official language, the unifying role and superior status was reserved for Russian, although it was declared the official language only in 1990.[118] Following the break-up of the USSR in 1991, several of the newly independent states have encouraged their native languages, which has partly reversed the privileged status of Russian, though its role as the language of post-Soviet national discourse throughout the region has continued.[citation needed]
The Russian language in the world declined after 1991 due to the collapse of the Soviet Union and decrease in the number of Russians in the world and diminution of the total population in Russia (where Russian is an official language), however this[clarification needed] has since been reversed.[50][119][120]
Source | Native speakers | Native rank | Total speakers | Total rank |
---|---|---|---|---|
G. Weber, "Top Languages", Language Monthly, 3: 12–18, 1997, ISSN 1369-9733 |
160,000,000 | 8 | 285,000,000 | 5 |
World Almanac (1999) | 145,000,000 | 8 (2005) | 275,000,000 | 5 |
SIL (2000 WCD) | 145,000,000 | 8 | 255,000,000 | 5–6 (tied with Arabic) |
CIA World Factbook (2005) | 160,000,000 | 8 |
According to figures published in 2006 in the journal "Demoskop Weekly" research deputy director of Research Center for Sociological Research of the Ministry of Education and Science (Russia) Arefyev A. L.,[121] the Russian language is gradually losing its position in the world in general, and in Russia in particular.[119][122][123][124] In 2012, A. L. Arefyev published a new study "Russian language at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries", in which he confirmed his conclusion about the trend of weakening of the Russian language after the Soviet Union's collapse in various regions of the world (findings published in 2013 in the journal "Demoskop Weekly").[50][125][126][127] In the countries of the former Soviet Union the Russian language was being replaced or used in conjunction with local languages.[50][128] Currently, the number of speakers of Russian in the world depends on the number of Russians in the world and total population in Russia.[50][119][120]
Year | worldwide population, billion |
population Russian Empire, Soviet Union and Russian Federation, million |
share in world population, % |
total number of speakers of Russian, million |
share in world population, % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1900 | 1.650 | 138.0 | 8.4 | 105 | 6.4 |
1914 | 1.782 | 182.2 | 10.2 | 140 | 7.9 |
1940 | 2.342 | 205.0 | 8.8 | 200 | 7.6 |
1980 | 4.434 | 265.0 | 6.0 | 280 | 6.3 |
1990 | 5.263 | 286.0 | 5.4 | 312 | 5.9 |
2004 | 6.400 | 146.0 | 2.3 | 278 | 4.3 |
2010 | 6.820 | 142.7 | 2.1 | 260 | 3.8 |
2020 | 7.794 | 147.3 | 1.8 | 256 | 3.3 |
Sample text
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Russian:[129]
Все люди рождаются свободными и равными в своем достоинстве и правах. Они наделены разумом и совестью и должны поступать в отношении друг друга в духе братства.
The romanization of the text into Latin alphabet:
Vse lyudi rozhdayutsya svobodnymi i ravnymi v svoyem dostoinstve i pravakh. Oni nadeleny razumom i sovest'yu i dolzhny postupat' v otnoshenii drug druga v dukhe bratstva.
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:[130]
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
See also
- List of English words of Russian origin
- List of Russian language topics
- List of countries and territories where Russian is an official language
- Computer Russification
Notes
- ^ On the history of using "русский" ("russkiy") and "российский" ("rossiyskiy") as the Russian adjectives denoting "Russian", see: Oleg Trubachyov. 2005. Русский – Российский. История, динамика, идеология двух атрибутов нации (pp. 216–227). В поисках единства. Взгляд филолога на проблему истоков Руси., 2005. РУССКИЙ – РОССИЙСКИЙ (in Russian). Archived from the original on February 18, 2014. Retrieved January 25, 2014.. On the 1830s change in the Russian name of the Russian language and its causes, see: Tomasz Kamusella. 2012. The Change of the Name of the Russian Language in Russian from Rossiiskii to Russkii: Did Politics Have Anything to Do with It? (pp. 73–96). Acta Slavica Iaponica. Vol 32, "The Change of the Name of the Russian Language in Russian from Rossiiskii to Russkii: Did Politics Have Anything to Do with It?" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 18, 2013. Retrieved January 7, 2013.
- ^ Under the laws of the Republic of Uzbekistan, Russian language is not offered any status in terms of official language. The provisions only state that "Under request of citizens the text of document compiled by state notary or person acting as a notary shall be issued on Russian and if possible on other acceptable language" "Uzbekistan: Law "On Official Language"". Archived from the original on May 8, 2019. Retrieved November 13, 2021.
- federal subject of Russia and Sevastopol to be one of Russia's three federal cities
- ^ a b Abkhazia and South Ossetia are only partially recognized countries.
- ^ Russian: Русский язык, romanized: Russkiy yazyk, pronounced [ˈruskʲɪj jɪˈzɨk] ⓘ
- ^ Including Rusyn, which is sometimes classified as a dialect of Ukrainian in Ukraine.[22]
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- ^ a b Русский язык на рубеже XX-XXI веков Archived June 15, 2013, at the Wayback Machine — М.: Центр социального прогнозирования и маркетинга, 2012. — 482 стр.
- ^ журнал "Демоскоп". Русский язык — советский язык?. Demoscope.ru (in Russian). Archived from the original on April 2, 2013. Retrieved June 18, 2013.
- ^ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights - Russian (Russky)". Archived from the original on December 7, 2023. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
- ^ Nations, United. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights". United Nations. Archived from the original on March 16, 2021. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
Sources
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Further reading
- Yanushevskaya, Irena; Bunčić, Daniel (2015). "Russian". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 45 (2): 221–228. , with supplementary sound recordings.
External links
- Russian Enthusiast - Prominent Russian language resource for English speakers
- Национальный корпус русского языка National Corpus of the Russian Language (in Russian)
- Russian Language Institute Language regulator of the Russian language (in Russian)