Rutherford B. Hayes
Rutherford B. Hayes | |
---|---|
John Calvin Lee | |
Preceded by | Jacob Dolson Cox |
Succeeded by | Edward Follansbee Noyes |
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Ohio's 2nd district | |
In office March 4, 1865 – July 20, 1867 | |
Preceded by | Alexander Long |
Succeeded by | Samuel Fenton Cary |
Personal details | |
Born | Rutherford Birchard Hayes October 4, 1822 Delaware, Ohio, U.S. |
Died | January 17, 1893 Fremont, Ohio, U.S. | (aged 70)
Resting place | Spiegel Grove State Park |
Political party |
|
Spouse |
Lucy Ware Webb (m. 1852; died 1889) |
Children | 8, including Webb C. Hayes and Rutherford P. Hayes |
Parents |
|
Relatives | Carl Edwards (great-great-great grandson) |
Education | |
Occupation |
|
Signature | |
Military service | |
Branch/service | Union Army (USV) |
Years of service | 1861–1865 |
Rank |
|
Regiments | 23rd Ohio Infantry |
Commands | Kanawha Division |
Battles/wars | |
Rutherford Birchard Hayes (/ˈrʌðərfərd/; October 4, 1822 – January 17, 1893) was an American military officer and politician who served as the 19th president of the United States from 1877 to 1881.
As an attorney in Ohio, Hayes served as Cincinnati's city solicitor from 1858 to 1861. He was a staunch abolitionist who defended refugee slaves in court proceedings.[1] At the start of the American Civil War, he left a fledgling political career to join the Union Army as an officer. Hayes was wounded five times, most seriously at the Battle of South Mountain in 1862. He earned a reputation for bravery in combat, rising in the ranks to serve as brevet major general. After the war, he earned a reputation in the Republican Party as a prominent member of the "Half-Breed" faction.[2] He served in Congress from 1865 to 1867 and was elected governor of Ohio, serving two consecutive terms from 1868 to 1872 and half of a third two-year term from 1876 to 1877 before his swearing-in as president.
Hayes won the Republican nomination for president in the 1876 United States presidential election. In the disputed[3][4] general election, he faced Democratic nominee Samuel J. Tilden. Hayes lost the popular vote to Tilden; neither candidate secured enough electoral votes to win the election. Hayes secured a victory when a Congressional Commission awarded him 20 contested electoral votes in the Compromise of 1877. The electoral dispute was resolved with a backroom deal whereby both Southern Democrats and Whiggish Republican businessmen acquiesced to Hayes's election on the condition that he end both federal support for Reconstruction and the military occupation of the former Confederate States.[5][6]
Hayes's administration was influenced by his belief in
Family and early life
Childhood and family history
Rutherford Birchard Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, on October 4, 1822, to Rutherford Ezekiel Hayes, Jr. and Sophia Birchard. Hayes's father, a Vermont storekeeper, had taken the family to Ohio in 1817. He died ten weeks before Rutherford's birth. Sophia took charge of the family, raising Hayes and his sister, Fanny, the only two of the four children to survive to adulthood.[7] She never remarried,[8] and Sophia's younger brother, Sardis Birchard, lived with the family for a time.[9] He was always close to Hayes and became a father figure to him, contributing to his early education.[10]
Through each of his parents, Hayes was descended from New England colonists.[11] His earliest immigrant ancestor came to Connecticut from Scotland.[12] Hayes's great-grandfather Ezekiel Hayes was a militia captain in Connecticut in the American Revolutionary War, but Ezekiel's son (Hayes's grandfather, also named Rutherford) left his Branford home during the war for the relative peace of Vermont.[13] His mother's ancestors migrated to Vermont at a similar time. Hayes wrote: "I have always thought of myself as Scotch, but of the fathers of my family who came to America about thirty were English and two only, Hayes and Rutherford, were of Scotch descent. This is on my father's side. On my mother's side, the whole thirty-two were probably all of other peoples besides the Scotch."[14] Most of his close relatives outside Ohio continued to live there. John Noyes, an uncle by marriage, had been his father's business partner in Vermont and was later elected to Congress.[15] His first cousin, Mary Jane Mead, was the mother of sculptor Larkin Goldsmith Mead and architect William Rutherford Mead.[15] John Humphrey Noyes, the founder of the Oneida Community, was also a first cousin.[16]
Education and early law career
Hayes attended the
After briefly reading law in Columbus, Ohio, Hayes moved east to attend Harvard Law School in 1843.[24] Graduating with an LL.B, he was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1845 and opened his own law office in Lower Sandusky (now Fremont).[25] Business was slow at first, but he gradually attracted clients and also represented his uncle Sardis in real estate litigation.[26] In 1847 Hayes became ill with what his doctor thought was tuberculosis. Thinking a change in climate would help, he considered enlisting in the Mexican–American War, but on his doctor's advice instead visited family in New England.[27] Returning from there, Hayes and his uncle Sardis made a long journey to Texas, where Hayes visited with Guy M. Bryan, a Kenyon classmate and distant relative.[28] Business remained meager on his return to Lower Sandusky, and Hayes decided to move to Cincinnati.[29]
Cincinnati law practice and marriage
Hayes moved to Cincinnati in 1850, and opened a law office with John W. Herron, a lawyer from Chillicothe.[30][a] Herron later joined a more established firm and Hayes formed a new partnership with William K. Rogers and Richard M. Corwine.[32] He found business better in Cincinnati, and enjoyed its social attractions, joining the Cincinnati Literary Society and the Odd Fellows Club.[33] He also attended the Episcopal Church in Cincinnati but did not become a member.[33]
Hayes courted his future wife, Lucy Webb, during his time there.[34] His mother had encouraged him to get to know Lucy years earlier, but Hayes had believed she was too young and focused his attention on other women.[35] Four years later, Hayes began to spend more time with Lucy. They became engaged in 1851 and married on December 30, 1852, at Lucy's mother's house.[34] Over the next five years, Lucy gave birth to three sons: Birchard Austin (1853), Webb Cook (1856), and Rutherford Platt (1858).[32] A Methodist, Lucy was a teetotaler and abolitionist. She influenced her husband's views on those issues, though he never formally joined her church.[36]
Hayes had begun his law practice dealing primarily with commercial issues but won greater prominence in Cincinnati as a criminal defense attorney,[37] defending several people accused of murder.[38] In one case, he used a form of the insanity defense that saved the accused from the gallows; she was instead confined to a mental institution.[39] Hayes also defended slaves who had escaped and been accused under the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.[40] As Cincinnati was just across the Ohio River from Kentucky, a slave state, it was a destination for escaping slaves and many such cases were tried in its courts. A staunch abolitionist, Hayes found his work on behalf of fugitive slaves personally gratifying as well as politically useful, as it raised his profile in the newly formed Republican Party.[41]
Hayes's political reputation rose with his professional plaudits. He declined a Republican nomination for a judgeship in 1856.[42] Two years later, some Republicans proposed that Hayes fill a vacancy on the bench, and he considered accepting the appointment until the office of city solicitor also became vacant.[43] The city council elected Hayes city solicitor to fill the vacancy, and he was elected to a full two-year term in April 1859 by a larger majority than other Republicans on the ticket.[44]
Civil War
West Virginia and South Mountain
As the Southern states quickly began to secede after
Returning to private practice, Hayes formed a very brief law partnership with
After a month of training, Hayes and the 23rd Ohio set out for western Virginia in July 1861 as a part of the
Eventually, his men brought Hayes back behind their lines, and he was taken to hospital. The regiment continued on to Antietam, but Hayes was out of action for the rest of the campaign.[56] In October, he was promoted to colonel and assigned to command of the first brigade of the Kanawha Division as a brevet brigadier general.[57]
Army of the Shenandoah
The division spent the following winter and spring near Charleston, Virginia (present-day West Virginia), out of contact with the enemy.[58] Hayes saw little action until July 1863, when the division skirmished with John Hunt Morgan's cavalry at the Battle of Buffington Island.[59] Returning to Charleston for the rest of the summer, Hayes spent the fall encouraging the men of the 23rd Ohio to reenlist, and many did.[60] In 1864, the Army command structure in West Virginia was reorganized, and Hayes's division was assigned to George Crook's Army of West Virginia.[60] Advancing into southwestern Virginia, they destroyed Confederate salt and lead mines there.[61] On May 9, they engaged Confederate troops at Cloyd's Mountain, where Hayes and his men charged the enemy entrenchments and drove the rebels from the field.[61] Following the rout, the Union forces destroyed Confederate supplies and again successfully skirmished with the enemy.[61]
Hayes and his brigade moved to the
Cedar Creek marked the end of the campaign. Hayes was promoted to brigadier general in October 1864 and brevetted major general.[68] Around this time, Hayes learned of the birth of his fourth son, George Crook Hayes. The army went into winter quarters once more, and in spring 1865 the war quickly came to a close with Lee's surrender to Grant at Appomattox. Hayes visited Washington, D.C., that May and observed the Grand Review of the Armies, after which he and the 23rd Ohio returned to their home state to be mustered out of the service.[69]
Post-war politics
U.S. Representative from Ohio
While serving in the
When the
Reelected in 1866, Hayes returned to the
Governor of Ohio
A popular Congressman and former Army officer, Hayes was considered by Ohio Republicans to be an excellent standard-bearer for the 1867 election campaign.[79] His political views were more moderate than the Republican party's platform, although he agreed with the proposed amendment to the Ohio state constitution that would guarantee suffrage to black male Ohioans.[79] Hayes's opponent, Allen G. Thurman, made the proposed amendment the centerpiece of the campaign and opposed black suffrage. Both men campaigned vigorously, making speeches across the state, mostly focusing on the suffrage question.[79] The election was mostly a disappointment to Republicans, as the amendment failed to pass and Democrats gained a majority in the state legislature.[80] Hayes thought at first that he, too, had lost, but the final tally showed that he had won the election by 2,983 votes of 484,603 votes cast.[80]
As a Republican governor with a Democratic legislature, Hayes had a limited role in governing, especially since
Private life and return to politics
As Hayes prepared to leave office, several delegations of reform-minded Republicans urged him to run for
In 1873, Lucy gave birth to another son, Manning Force Hayes.[92][c] That same year, the Panic of 1873 hurt business prospects across the nation, including Hayes's. His uncle Sardis Birchard died that year, and the Hayes family moved into Spiegel Grove, the grand house Birchard had built with them in mind.[94] That year Hayes announced his uncle's bequest of $50,000 in assets to endow a public library for Fremont, to be called the Birchard Library. It opened in 1874 on Front Street, and a new building was completed and opened in 1878 in Fort Stephenson State Park, as per the terms of the bequest. Hayes served as chairman of the library's board of trustees until his death.[95]
Hayes hoped to stay out of politics in order to pay off the debts he had incurred during the Panic, but when the Republican state convention nominated him for governor in 1875, he accepted.
Election of 1876
Republican nomination and campaign against Tilden
Hayes's success in Ohio immediately elevated him to the top ranks of Republican politicians under consideration for the presidency in 1876.[99] The Ohio delegation to the 1876 Republican National Convention was united behind him, and Senator John Sherman did all in his power to get Hayes the nomination.[100] In June 1876, the convention assembled with James G. Blaine of Maine as the favorite.[101] Blaine started with a significant lead in the delegate count, but could not muster a majority. As he failed to gain votes, the delegates looked elsewhere for a nominee and settled on Hayes on the seventh ballot.[102] The convention selected Representative William A. Wheeler from New York for vice president, a man about whom Hayes had recently asked, "I am ashamed to say: who is Wheeler?"[103]
The campaign strategy of Hayes and Wheeler emphasized conciliatory appeals to the Southern Whiggish element, attempting to "detach" old Southern Whigs from Southern Democrats.[104] When Frederick Douglass asked whether the Republican Party would continue its devotion to protecting black civil rights or "get along without the vote of the black man in the South", Hayes and Wheeler advocated the latter.
The Democratic nominee was
As the returns were tallied on election day, it was clear that the race was close: Democrats had carried most of the South, as well as New York, Indiana,
Disputed electoral votes
On November 11, three days after election day, Tilden appeared to have won 184 electoral votes, one short of a majority.[114] Hayes appeared to have 166, with the 19 votes of Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina still in doubt.[114] Republicans and Democrats each claimed victory in the three latter states, but the results in those states were rendered uncertain because of fraud by both parties.[115] To further complicate matters, one of the three electors from Oregon (a state Hayes had won) was disqualified, reducing Hayes's total to 165, and raising the disputed votes to 20. [3][d] If Hayes was not awarded all 20 disputed votes, Tilden would be elected president.
There was considerable debate about which person or house of Congress was authorized to decide between the competing slates of electors, with the Republican Senate and the Democratic House each claiming priority.
As inauguration day neared, Republican and Democratic Congressional leaders met at Wormley's Hotel in Washington to negotiate a compromise. Republicans promised concessions in exchange for Democratic acquiescence to the committee's decision. The main concession Hayes promised was the withdrawal of federal troops from the South and an acceptance of the election of Democratic governments in the remaining "unredeemed" southern states.[4] The Democrats agreed, and on March 2, the filibuster was ended. Hayes was elected, but Reconstruction was finished, and freedmen were left at the mercy of white Democrats who did not intend to preserve their rights.[125] On April 3, Hayes ordered Secretary of War George W. McCrary to withdraw federal troops stationed at the South Carolina State House to their barracks. On April 20, he ordered McCrary to send the federal troops stationed at New Orleans's St. Louis Hotel to Jackson Barracks.[126]
Presidency (1877–1881)
Inauguration
Because March 4, 1877, was a Sunday, Hayes took the oath of office privately on Saturday, March 3, in the
The South and the end of Reconstruction
Hayes had firmly supported Republican
At the time of the 1876 election only three states, Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana, still had Republican governments. In Florida the Democrats won the governor's election and controlled the state house, leaving South Carolina and Louisiana as the only states where Republican regimes were still supported by federal troops.[134] Without troops to enforce the voting rights laws, these soon fell to Democratic control.[135]
Hayes's later attempts to protect the rights of southern blacks were ineffective, as were his attempts to rebuild Republican strength in the South.
The Democrats did not have enough votes to override the veto, but they passed a new bill with the same rider. Hayes vetoed that bill too, and the process was repeated three more times.[137] Finally, Congress passed a bill without the offensive rider, but refused to pass another bill to fund federal marshals, who were vital to the enforcement of the Enforcement Acts.[137] The election laws remained in effect, but the funds to enforce them were curtailed for the time being.[138]
Hayes tried to reconcile the social mores of the South with the recently passed civil rights laws by distributing patronage among southern Democrats. "My task was to wipe out the color line, to abolish sectionalism, to end the war and bring peace," he wrote in his diary. "To do this, I was ready to resort to unusual measures and to risk my own standing and reputation within my party and the country."[139] All his efforts were in vain; Hayes failed to persuade the South to accept legal racial equality or to convince Congress to appropriate funds to enforce the civil rights laws.[140]
Civil service reform
Hayes took office determined to reform the system of civil service appointments, which had been based on the
To show his commitment to reform, Hayes appointed one of the best-known advocates of reform at the time,
Although he could not convince Congress to prohibit the spoils system, Hayes issued an
Hayes was forced to wait until July 1878, when he fired Arthur and Cornell during a Congressional recess and replaced them with recess appointments of Merritt and Silas W. Burt, respectively.[149][f] Conkling opposed confirmation of the appointees when the Senate reconvened in February 1879, but Merritt was approved by a vote of 31–25 and Burt by 31–19, giving Hayes his most significant civil service reform victory.[151]
For the remainder of his term, Hayes pressed Congress to enact permanent reform legislation and fund the
Hayes also dealt with
Great Railroad Strike
In his first year in office, Hayes was faced with the United States' largest labor uprising to date, the
By July 29, the riots had ended and federal troops returned to their barracks.[166] No federal troops had killed any of the strikers, or been killed themselves, but clashes between state militia troops and strikers resulted in deaths on both sides.[167] The railroads were victorious in the short term, as the workers returned to their jobs and some wage cuts remained in effect. But the public blamed the railroads for the strikes and violence, and they were compelled to improve working conditions and make no further cuts.[168] Business leaders praised Hayes, but his own opinion was more equivocal; as he recorded in his diary:
"The strikes have been put down by force; but now for the real remedy. Can't something [be] done by education of strikers, by judicious control of capitalists, by wise general policy to end or diminish the evil? The railroad strikers, as a rule, are good men, sober, intelligent, and industrious."[169]
Currency debate
Hayes confronted two issues regarding the
The second issue concerned
Foreign policy
Most of Hayes's foreign-policy concerns involved
The
Outside the
In 1877 former President Grant embarked on a world tour shortly after his second term. Hayes was aware of Grant's popularity in Europe and encouraged Grant to extend his tour in the hope that it would improve various foreign relations and strengthen American interests abroad.[186] When Grant was in Nice he boarded USS Vandalia, a screw sloop-of-war that Hayes had personally sent by for Grant's winter cruise about the Mediterranean and journey to Egypt.[187][188]
Indian policy
Interior Secretary Carl Schurz carried out Hayes's American Indian policy, beginning with preventing the War Department from taking over the Bureau of Indian Affairs.[189] Hayes and Schurz carried out a policy that included assimilation into white culture, educational training, and dividing Indian land into individual household allotments.[190] Hayes believed his policies would lead to self-sufficiency and peace between Indians and whites.[191] The allotment system under the Dawes Act, later signed by President Grover Cleveland in 1887, was favored by liberal reformers at the time, including Schurz, but instead proved detrimental to American Indians. They lost much of their land through sales of what the government classified as "surplus lands", and more to unscrupulous white speculators who tried to get the Indians to sell their allotments.[192] Hayes and Schurz reformed the Bureau of Indian Affairs to reduce fraud and gave Indians responsibility for policing their reservations, but they were generally understaffed.[193]
Hayes dealt with several conflicts with Indian tribes. The
Hayes also became involved in resolving the removal of the Ponca tribe from Nebraska to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) because of a misunderstanding during the Grant administration. The tribe's problems came to Hayes's attention after its chief, Standing Bear, filed a lawsuit to contest Schurz's demand that they stay in Indian Territory. Overruling Schurz, Hayes set up a commission in 1880 that ruled the Ponca were free to return to their home territory in Nebraska or stay on their reservation in Indian Territory. The Ponca were awarded compensation for their land rights, which had been previously granted to the Sioux.[197] In a message to Congress in February 1881, Hayes insisted he would "give to these injured people that measure of redress which is required alike by justice and by humanity."[198]
Great Western Tour of 1880
In 1880, Hayes embarked on a 71-day tour of the Western United States, becoming the second sitting president to travel west of the Rocky Mountains. (Hayes's immediate predecessor, Ulysses Grant, visited Utah in 1875.) Hayes's traveling party included his wife and William T. Sherman, who helped organize the trip. Hayes began his trip in September 1880, departing from Chicago on the transcontinental railroad. He journeyed across the continent, ultimately arriving in California, stopping first in Wyoming and then Utah and Nevada, reaching Sacramento and San Francisco. By railroad and stagecoach, the party traveled north to Oregon, arriving in Portland, and from there to Vancouver, Washington. Going by steamship, they visited Seattle, and then returned to San Francisco. Hayes then toured several southwestern states before returning to Ohio in November, in time to cast a vote in the 1880 presidential election.[199]
Hayes's White House
Hayes and his wife Lucy were known for their policy of keeping an alcohol-free White House, giving rise to her nickname "Lemonade Lucy."[200] The first reception at the Hayes White House included wine,[201] but Hayes was dismayed at drunken behavior at receptions hosted by ambassadors around Washington, leading him to follow his wife's temperance leanings.[202] Alcohol was not served again in the Hayes White House. Critics charged Hayes with parsimony, but Hayes spent more money (which came out of his personal budget) after the ban, ordering that any savings from eliminating alcohol be used on more lavish entertainment.[203] His temperance policy also paid political dividends, strengthening his support among Protestant ministers.[202] Although Secretary Evarts quipped that at the White House dinners, "water flowed like wine," the policy was a success in convincing prohibitionists to vote Republican.[204]
Judicial appointments
Hayes appointed two
Hayes unsuccessfully attempted to fill a third vacancy in 1881. Justice Noah Haynes Swayne resigned with the expectation that Hayes would fill his seat by appointing Stanley Matthews, a friend of both men.[208] Many senators objected to the appointment, believing that Matthews was too close to corporate and railroad interests, especially those of Jay Gould,[209] and the Senate adjourned without voting on the nomination.[208] The following year, when James A. Garfield entered the White House, he resubmitted Matthews's nomination to the Senate, which this time confirmed Matthews by one vote, 24 to 23.[208] Matthews served for eight years until his death in 1889. His opinion in Yick Wo v. Hopkins in 1886 advanced his and Hayes's views on the protection of ethnic minorities' rights.[210]
Post-presidency (1881–1893)
Hayes declined to seek reelection in 1880, keeping his pledge not to run for a second term.[211] During the 1880 Republican National Convention, he opposed the nomination of both Conkling and Arthur for the Vice Presidency, as well as opposing Grant's attempt to run for a third term. Hayes considered Grant a failure as president, and believed the president should have a single six-year term.[212] He was gratified by the election of fellow Ohio Republican James A. Garfield to succeed him, and consulted with him on appointments for the next administration.[213] After Garfield's inauguration, Hayes and his family returned to Spiegel Grove.[214] In 1881, he was elected a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. He served as commander-in-chief (national president) of the Loyal Legion from 1888 until his death in 1893. Although he remained a loyal Republican, Hayes was not too disappointed in Democrat Grover Cleveland's election to the presidency in 1884, approving of Cleveland's views on civil service reform.[215] He was also pleased at the progress of the political career of William McKinley, his army comrade and political protégé.[216]
Hayes became an advocate for educational charities and federal education subsidies for all children.[217] He believed education was the best way to heal the rifts in American society and allow people to improve themselves.[218] In 1887 Hayes was appointed to the Board of Trustees of Ohio State University, the school he helped found as governor of Ohio.[219] He emphasized the need for vocational, as well as academic, education: "I preach the gospel of work," he wrote, "I believe in skilled labor as a part of education."[220] He urged Congress, unsuccessfully, to pass a bill written by Senator Henry W. Blair that would have allowed federal aid for education for the first time.[221] In 1889 Hayes gave a speech encouraging black students to apply for scholarships from the Slater Fund, one of the charities with which he was affiliated.[222] One such student, W. E. B. Du Bois, received a scholarship in 1892.[222] Hayes also advocated better prison conditions.[223]
In retirement, Hayes was troubled by the disparity between the rich and the poor, saying in an 1886 speech, "free government cannot long endure if property is largely in a few hands and large masses of people are unable to earn homes, education, and a support in old age."[224] The next year, he recorded thoughts on that subject in his diary:
In church it occurred to me that it is time for the public to hear that the giant evil and danger in this country, the danger which transcends all others, is the vast wealth owned or controlled by a few persons. Money is power. In Congress, in state legislatures, in city councils, in the courts, in the political conventions, in the press, in the pulpit, in the circles of the educated and the talented, its influence is growing greater and greater. Excessive wealth in the hands of the few means extreme poverty, ignorance, vice, and wretchedness as the lot of the many. It is not yet time to debate about the remedy. The previous question is as to the danger—the evil. Let the people be fully informed and convinced as to the evil. Let them earnestly seek the remedy and it will be found. Fully to know the evil is the first step towards reaching its eradication. Henry George is strong when he portrays the rottenness of the present system. We are, to say the least, not yet ready for his remedy. We may reach and remove the difficulty by changes in the laws regulating corporations, descents of property, wills, trusts, taxation, and a host of other important interests, not omitting lands and other property.[225]
Hayes was greatly saddened by his wife's death in 1889.[226] When she died, he wrote, "the soul had left [Spiegel Grove]".[226] After Lucy's death, Hayes's daughter Fanny became his traveling companion, and he enjoyed visits from his grandchildren.[227] In 1890, he chaired the Lake Mohonk Conference on the Negro Question, a gathering of reformers that met in upstate New York to discuss racial issues.[228] Hayes died of complications of a heart attack at his home on January 17, 1893, at the age of 70.[229] His last words were "I know that I'm going where Lucy is."[229] President-elect Cleveland and Ohio governor McKinley, who would be Cleveland's immediate successor in 1897, led the funeral procession that followed his body until Hayes was interred in Oakwood Cemetery in Fremont, Ohio.[230] In 1915, his remains were moved to his former home in Spiegel Grove for burial with his wife Lucy.[231][232]
Legacy and honors
Biographer Ari Hoogenboom has written that Hayes's greatest achievement was to restore popular faith in the presidency and reverse the deterioration of executive power that had established itself after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865. His supporters have praised his commitment to civil-service reform; his critics have derided his leniency toward former Confederate states as well as his withdrawal of federal support for African Americans' voting rights and civil rights.[233] Historians and scholars generally rank Hayes as an average to below-average president.[234][235]
After the donation of his home to the state of Ohio for Spiegel Grove State Park, Hayes was reinterred there in 1915.[236] The next year the Hayes Commemorative Library and Museum, the country's first presidential library, opened on the site, funded by contributions from the state of Ohio and Hayes's family.[237]
In 1922 the U.S. Post Office issued its first postage stamp honoring Hayes, 29 years after his death, on the 100th anniversary of his birth. Another Hayes stamp, a 19-cent issue, was released in 1938.[238] In 2011, the U.S. Mint released a "Golden Dollar", the first item of U.S. currency to honor Hayes.[239]
Hayes had arbitrated and decided an 1878 dispute between Argentina and Paraguay in favor of Paraguay, giving Paraguay 60% of its current territory. This led to the naming of a province in the region after him:
Also named for Hayes is Hayes County, Nebraska.[241]
Hayes was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society on October 21, 1890.[242]
Rutherford B. Hayes High School in Hayes's hometown of Delaware, Ohio, was named in his honor, as is Hayes Hall, built in 1893, at the Ohio State University. It is Ohio State's oldest remaining building, and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 16, 1970, due to its front facade, which remains virtually untouched from its original appearance. Hayes knew the building would be named in his honor, but did not live to see it completed.[243] The City of Delaware also erected a statue of Hayes.
Notes
- ^ Herron's daughter, Helen, later married William Howard Taft.[31]
- ^ His first two sons, Joseph and George, had died in infancy.[88]
- Manning Force.[93]
- ^ The elector, John W. Watts, was disqualified because he held "an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States", in violation of Article II, section 1, clause 2 of the U.S. Constitution.[116]
- ^ Hayes's predecessor, President Ulysses S. Grant, appointed the first Civil Service Commission in 1871, but it dissolved in 1874.[142]
- ^ Charles K. Graham filled Merritt's former position.[150]
References
- ^ "Rutherford B. Hayes". The White House. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
- ^ Welch, Richard E., Jr. (1971). George Frisbie Hoar and the Half-Breed Republicans, p. 91. Harvard University Press.
- ^ a b Robinson 2001, pp. 127–128.
- ^ a b Robinson 2001, pp. 182–184; Foner 2002, pp. 580–581.
- ^ ""Betrayal of the Freedman: Rutherford B. Hayes and the End of Reconstruction"". Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Library & Museums. Retrieved May 19, 2021.
- ^ "America's Gilded Age: Robber Barons and Captains of Industry". Maryville Online. Retrieved February 21, 2022.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, p. 10; Barnard 2005, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Trefousse 2002, p. 4.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 20–21; Barnard 2005, pp. 27–31.
- ^ Barnard 2005, p. 41.
- ^ Trefousse 2002, p. 3.
- ^ Barnard 2005, p. 53.
- ^ "Hayes Family Genealogy".
- ^ a b Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 62–63; Barnard 2005, p. 113.
- ^ Trefousse 2002, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 20–22; Trefousse 2002, p. 5.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, p. 25.
- ^ Barnard 2005, pp. 107–113.
- ^ "Topping, Eva Catafygiotu" John Zachos Cincinnatian from Constantinople The Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin Volumes 33–34 Cincinnati Historical Society 1975: p. 51
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 33–43.
- ^ Trefousse 2002, p. 6.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 43–51; Barnard 2005, pp. 131–138.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 55–60.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 62–66.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 66–70; Barnard 2005, p. 114.
- ^ Trefousse 2002, p. 8.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, p. 73.
- ^ Barnard 2005, p. 167.
- ^ a b Barnard 2005, pp. 184–185.
- ^ a b Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 74–75.
- ^ a b Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 78–86.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Barnard 2005, pp. 178–180, 187–188; Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 93–95.
- ^ Trefousse 2002, p. 9.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 87–93.
- ^ Trefousse 2002, p. 10.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 95–99; Barnard 2005, pp. 189–191.
- ^ Barnard 2005, pp. 196–197; Trefousse 2002, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, p. 100.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 104–105; Barnard 2005, pp. 202–203.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, p. 107; Barnard 2005, p. 204.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, p. 113; Barnard 2005, p. 210.
- ^ a b Hoogenboom 1995, p. 114; Barnard 2005, pp. 210–212.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, p. 115; Barnard 2005, pp. 213–214.
- ^ a b Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 116–117.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 120–121.
- ^ Hoogenboom 1995, pp. 125–126; Reid 1868, p. 160.
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Rutherford B. Hayes, the 19th U.S. president, doesn't get much respect. He's remembered, if at all, for losing the popular vote in 1876 but winning the presidency through Electoral College maneuvering.
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Bibliography
Books
- Barnard, Harry (2005) [1954]. Rutherford Hayes and his America. Newtown, Connecticut: American Political Biography Press. ISBN 978-0-945707-05-9.
- Bruce, Robert V. (1989) [1959]. 1877: Year of Violence. Ivan R. Dee, Publisher. ISBN 978-0-929587-05-9.
- ISBN 978-0-7006-2484-3.
- Campbell, Edwina S. (2016). Citizen of a Wider Commonwealth: Ulysses S. Grant's Postpresidential Diplomacy. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0809334780.
- Conwell, Russell H. (1876). Life and public services of Gov. Rutherford B. Hayes. B oston: B. B. Russell; Philadelphia, Quaker city pub. house.
- Davison, Kenneth E. (1972). The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-8371-6275-1.
- Dodds, Graham G. (2013). Take Up Your Pen: Unilateral Presidential Directives in American Politics. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0815-3.
- ISBN 978-0-06-093716-4.
- ISBN 978-0-7607-4990-6.
- Hayes, Rutherford B. (1922). Williams, Charles Richard (ed.). The Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, Nineteenth President of the United States. Vol. 1. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society.
- —— (1922). —— (ed.). The Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, Nineteenth President of the United States. Vol. 2. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society.
- —— (1922). —— (ed.). The Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, Nineteenth President of the United States. Vol. 3. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State Archeological and Historical Society.
- ISBN 978-0-7006-0641-2.
- ISBN 978-0-3933-4287-1.
- Reid, Whitelaw (1868). Ohio in the War: The history of her regiments, and other military organizations. Moore, Wilstach & Baldwin.
- Rhodes, J. F. (1919). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850: 1877–1896.
- Richardson, Heather Cox (2001). The Death of Reconstruction. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00637-9.
- Robinson, Lloyd (2001) [1968]. The Stolen Election: Hayes versus Tilden—1876. New York: Tom Doherty Associates. ISBN 978-0-7653-0206-9.
- Sproat, John G. (1974). "Rutherford B. Hayes: 1877–1881". In ISBN 978-0-440-05923-3.
- Stowell, David O. (1999). Streets, Railroads, and the Great Strike of 1877. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77668-2.
- ISBN 978-0-8050-6907-5.
- ISBN 978-1-59740-431-0.
- White, Ronald C. (2016). American Ulysses: A Life of Ulysses S. Grant. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-5883-6992-5.
Articles
- JSTOR 27566958.
- JSTOR 1892626.
- Paul, Ezra (Winter 1998). "Congressional Relations and Public Relations in the Administration of Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–81)". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 28 (1): 68–87. JSTOR 27551831.
- Skidmore, Max J. "Rutherford B. Hayes." in Maligned Presidents: The Late 19th Century (2014): 50–62.
- Smith, Thomas A. (1980). "Before Hyde Park: The Rutherford B. Hayes Library". The American Archivist. 43 (4): 485–488. JSTOR 40292342.
- Stuart, Paul (September 1977). "United States Indian Policy: From the Dawes Act to the American Indian Policy Review Commission". Social Service Review. 51 (3): 451–463. S2CID 143506388.
- Swint, Henry L. (June 1952). "Rutherford B. Hayes, Educator". The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 39 (1): 45–60. JSTOR 1902843.
- Thelen, David P. (Summer 1970). "Rutherford B. Hayes and the Reform Tradition in the Gilded Age". American Quarterly. 22 (2): 150–165. JSTOR 2711639.
External links
- United States Congress. "Rutherford B. Hayes (id: H000393)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
- The Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center
- Rutherford B. Hayes: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
- Extensive essays on Rutherford B. Hayes and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
- "Life Portrait of Rutherford B. Hayes", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, July 19, 1999
- Rutherford B. Hayes at Curlie
- Rutherford B. Hayes Personal Manuscripts & Letters
- Works by Rutherford B. Hayes at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by Rutherford B. Hayes at Project Gutenberg