Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1963) Federativna Narodna Republika Jugoslavija (Serbo-Croatian Latin)
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1963–1992) Socijalistička Federativna Republika Jugoslavija (Serbo-Croatian Latin)
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1945–1992 | |||||||||||||||||||
Motto: "Brotherhood and unity" Bratstvo i jedinstvo (Serbo-Croatian Latin)
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Anthem: "Hey, Slavs" Hej, Slaveni[b][c] (Serbo-Croatian Latin)
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Capital and largest city | Belgrade 44°49′12″N 20°25′39″E / 44.82000°N 20.42750°E | ||||||||||||||||||
Official languages | None at the federal level[a] | ||||||||||||||||||
Recognised national languages | |||||||||||||||||||
General Secretary | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1945–1980 (first) | Josip Broz Tito | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1989–1990 (last) | Milan Pančevski | ||||||||||||||||||
President | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1945–1953 (first) | Ivan Ribar | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1991 (last) | Stjepan Mesić | ||||||||||||||||||
Prime Minister | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1945–1963 (first) | Josip Broz Tito | ||||||||||||||||||
• 1989–1991 (last) | Ante Marković | ||||||||||||||||||
Legislature | Federal Chamber | ||||||||||||||||||
Historical era | Cold War | ||||||||||||||||||
• DFY formed | 29 November 1943 | ||||||||||||||||||
• SFRY proclaimed | 29 November 1945 | ||||||||||||||||||
• Constitution adopted | 31 January 1946 | ||||||||||||||||||
c. 1948 | |||||||||||||||||||
1 September 1961 | |||||||||||||||||||
7 April 1963 | |||||||||||||||||||
21 February 1974 | |||||||||||||||||||
• Death of Josip Broz Tito | 4 May 1980 | ||||||||||||||||||
• Start of the Yugoslav Wars | 27 June 1991 | ||||||||||||||||||
27 April 1992 | |||||||||||||||||||
Population | |||||||||||||||||||
• 1991 estimate | 23,229,846 | ||||||||||||||||||
GDP (PPP) | 1989 estimate | ||||||||||||||||||
• Total | $103.04 billion | ||||||||||||||||||
• Per capita | $6,604 | ||||||||||||||||||
HDI (1990 formula) | 0.913[4] very high | ||||||||||||||||||
Currency | Yugoslav dinar (YUN)[d] | ||||||||||||||||||
Time zone | UTC+1 (CET) | ||||||||||||||||||
• Summer (DST) | UTC+2 (CEST) | ||||||||||||||||||
Driving side | right | ||||||||||||||||||
Calling code | +38 | ||||||||||||||||||
Internet TLD | .yu | ||||||||||||||||||
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The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY), commonly referred to as SFR Yugoslavia or Socialist Yugoslavia or simply as Yugoslavia, was a country in Central and Southeast Europe. It emerged in 1945, following World War II, and lasted until 1992, with the breakup of Yugoslavia occurring as a consequence of the Yugoslav Wars. Spanning an area of 255,804 square kilometres (98,766 sq mi) in the Balkans, Yugoslavia was bordered by the Adriatic Sea and Italy to the west, by Austria and Hungary to the north, by Bulgaria and Romania to the east, and by Albania and Greece to the south. It was a one-party socialist state and federation governed by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, and had six constituent republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. Within Serbia was the Yugoslav capital city of Belgrade as well as two autonomous Yugoslav provinces: Kosovo and Vojvodina.
The SFR Yugoslavia traces its origins to 26 November 1942, when the
Following the
Name
The name
- Serbo-Croatian and Macedonian
- Latin: Socijalistička Federativna Republika Jugoslavija
- Cyrillic: Социјалистичка Федеративна Република Југославија
- Serbo-Croatian pronunciation: [sot͡sijalǐstit͡ʃkaː fêderatiːʋnaː repǔblika juɡǒslaːʋija]
- Macedonian pronunciation: [sɔt͡sijaˈlistit͡ʃka fɛdɛraˈtivna rɛˈpublika juɡɔˈsɫavija]
- Slovene
- Socialistična federativna republika Jugoslavija
- Slovene pronunciation: [sɔtsijaˈlìːstitʃna fɛdɛraˈtíːwna rɛˈpùːblika juɡɔˈslàːʋija]
Due to the length of the name, abbreviations were often used to refer to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, though the state was most commonly known simply as Yugoslavia. The most common abbreviation is SFRY, though SFR Yugoslavia was also used in an official capacity, particularly by the media.
History
World War II
On 6 April 1941, Yugoslavia was
The Front formed a representative political body, the
During 1943, the Yugoslav Partisans began attracting serious attention from the Germans. In two major operations, Fall Weiss (January to April 1943) and Fall Schwartz (15 May to 16 June 1943), the Axis attempted to stamp out the Yugoslav resistance once and for all. In the
As the war turned decisively against the Axis in 1944, the Partisans continued to hold significant chunks of Yugoslav territory.[
By 1945, the Partisans were clearing out Axis forces and liberating the remaining parts of occupied territory. On 20 March 1945, the Partisans launched their General Offensive in a drive to completely oust the Germans and the remaining collaborating forces.
Postwar period
The first Yugoslav post-World War II elections were set for
I am not in principle against political parties because democracy also presupposes the freedom to express one's principles and one's ideas. But to create parties for the sake of parties, now, when all of us, as one, must direct all our strength in the direction of driving the occupying forces from our country, when the homeland has been razed to the ground when we have nothing but our awareness and our hands ... we have no time for that now. And here is a popular movement [the People's Front]. Everyone is welcome within it, both communists and those who were Democrats and radicals, etc., whatever they were called before. This movement is the force, the only force which can now lead our country out of this horror and misery and bring it to complete freedom.
— Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito, January 1945[20]
However, while the elections themselves were fairly conducted by a secret ballot, the campaign that preceded them was highly irregular.[15] Opposition newspapers were banned on more than one occasion, and in Serbia, the opposition leaders such as Milan Grol received threats via the press. The opposition withdrew from the election in protest to the hostile atmosphere and this situation caused the three royalist representatives, Grol-Subasic-Juraj Šutej, to secede from the provisional government. Indeed, voting was on a single list of People's Front candidates with provision for opposition votes to be cast in separate voting boxes, but this procedure made electors identifiable by OZNA agents.[26][27] The election results of 11 November 1945 were decisively in favour of the former, with an average of 85% of voters of each federated state casting their ballot for the People's Front.[15] On 29 November 1945, the second anniversary of the Second Session of the AVNOJ, the Constituent Assembly of Yugoslavia formally abolished the monarchy and declared the state a republic. The country's official name became the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPR Yugoslavia, FPRY), and the six federated states became "People's Republics".[20][28] Yugoslavia became a one-party state and was considered in its earliest years a model of Communist orthodoxy.[29]
The Yugoslav government allied with the
Meanwhile,
From the beginning, the foreign policy of the Yugoslav government under Tito assigned high importance to the development of strong diplomatic relations with other nations, including those outside of the Balkans and Europe. Yugoslavia quickly established formal relations with the states of
Informbiro period
Eastern Bloc |
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The Tito–Stalin, or Yugoslav–Soviet split, took place in the spring and early summer of 1948. Its title pertains to Tito, at the time the
We are not going to pay the balance on others' accounts, we are not going to serve as pocket money in anyone's currency exchange, we are not going to allow ourselves to become entangled in political spheres of interest. Why should it be held against our peoples that they want to be completely independent? And why should autonomy be restricted, or the subject of dispute? We will not be dependent on anyone ever again!
— Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito[20]
The 31-page-long Soviet answer of 4 May 1948 admonished the KPJ for failing to admit and correct its mistakes, and went on to accuse it of being too proud of their successes against the Germans, maintaining that the Red Army had "saved them from destruction" (an implausible statement, as Tito's partisans had successfully campaigned against Axis forces for four years before the appearance of the Red Army there).
Reform
Yugoslavia began a number of fundamental reforms in the early 1950s, bringing about change in three major directions: rapid
In 1971 the leadership of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, notably
In 1979, seven selection criteria comprising
Post-Tito period
Tito died on 4 May 1980 due to complications after surgery. While it had been known for some time that the 87-year-old president's health had been failing, his death nonetheless came as a shock to the country. This was because Tito was looked upon as the country's hero in World War II and had been the country's dominant figure and identity for over three decades. His loss marked a significant alteration, and it was reported that many Yugoslavs openly mourned his death. In the Split soccer stadium, Serbs and Croats visited the coffin among other spontaneous outpourings of grief, and a funeral was organized by the League of Communists with hundreds of world leaders in attendance (See
Dissolution and war
Tensions between the republics and nations of Yugoslavia intensified from the 1970s to the 1980s. The causes for the collapse of the country have been associated with nationalism, ethnic conflict, economic difficulty, frustration with government bureaucracy, the influence of important figures in the country, and international politics. Ideology, and particularly nationalism, has been seen by many as the primary source of the break up of Yugoslavia.
However, economic issues have not been demonstrated to be the sole determining factor in the break up, as Yugoslavia in this period was the most prosperous Communist state in Eastern Europe, and the country in fact disintegrated during a period of economic recovery after the implementation of the economic reforms of Ante Marković's government.
The
Fed up by Milošević's manipulation of the assembly, first the delegations of the
Both Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence on 25 June 1991. On the morning of 26 June, units of the Yugoslav People's Army's 13th Corps left their barracks in Rijeka, Croatia, to move towards Slovenia's borders with Italy. The move immediately led to a strong reaction from local Slovenians, who organized spontaneous barricades and demonstrations against the YPA's actions. There was, as yet, no fighting, and both sides appeared to have an unofficial policy of not being the first to open fire. By this time, the Slovenian government had already put into action its plan to seize control of both the international Ljubljana Airport and the Slovenia's border posts on borders with Italy, Austria and Hungary. The personnel manning the border posts were, in most cases, already Slovenians, so the Slovenian take-over mostly simply amounted to changing of uniforms and insignia, without any fighting. By taking control of the borders, the Slovenians were able to establish defensive positions against an expected YPA attack. This meant that the YPA would have to fire the first shot. It was fired on 27 June at 14:30 in Divača by an officer of YPA. The conflict spread into the Ten-Day War, with many soldiers wounded and killed, in which the YPA was ineffective. Many unmotivated soldiers of Slovenian, Croatian, Bosnian or Macedonian nationality deserted or quietly rebelled against some (Serbian) officers who wanted to intensify the conflict. It also marked the end of the YPA, which was until then composed by members of all Yugoslav nations. After that, the YPA consisted mainly of men of Serbian nationality.[67]
On 7 July 1991, whilst supportive of their respective rights to national self-determination, the European Community pressured Slovenia and Croatia to place a three-month moratorium on their independence with the
At the same time, the Serbian government contradicted its Montenegrin allies through claims by the Serbian Prime Minister
This, what you are doing, is not good. This is the path that you want to take Bosnia and Herzegovina on, the same highway of hell and death that Slovenia and Croatia went on. Don't think that you won't take Bosnia and Herzegovina into hell, and the Muslim people maybe into extinction. Because the Muslim people cannot defend themselves if there is war here.
— Radovan Karadžić, 14 October 1991.[72]
In the meantime, behind the scenes, negotiations began between Milošević and Tuđman to divide Bosnia and Herzegovina into Serb and Croat administered territories to attempt to avert war between Bosnian Croats and Serbs.
Post-1992 UN membership
In September 1992, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (consisting of Serbia and Montenegro) failed to achieve de jure recognition as the continuation of the Socialist Federal Republic in the United Nations. It was separately recognised as a successor alongside Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia. Before 2000, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia declined to re-apply for membership in the United Nations and the United Nations Secretariat allowed the mission from the SFRY to continue to operate and accredited representatives of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the SFRY mission, continuing work in various United Nations organs.[76] It was only after the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević, that the government of FR Yugoslavia applied for UN membership in 2000.
Politics
Constitution
The
In 1974, Tito was elected President-for-life of Yugoslavia.[78] After Tito's death in 1980, the single position of president was divided into a collective Presidency, where representatives of each republic would essentially form a committee where the concerns of each republic would be addressed and from it, collective federal policy goals and objectives would be implemented. The head of the collective presidency was rotated between representatives of the republics. The collective presidency was considered the head of state of Yugoslavia. The collective presidency was ended in 1991, as Yugoslavia fell apart. In 1974, major reforms to Yugoslavia's constitution occurred. Among the changes was the controversial internal division of Serbia, which created two autonomous provinces within it, Vojvodina and Kosovo. Each of these autonomous provinces had voting power equal to that of the republics, and were represented in the Serbian assembly.[79]
Women's rights policy
The 1946 Yugoslav Constitution aimed to unify family law throughout Yugoslavia and to overcome discriminatory provisions, particularly concerning economic rights, inheritance, child custody and the birth of 'illegitimate' children. Article 24 of the Constitution affirmed the equality of women in society, stating that: "Women have equal rights with men in all areas of state, economic and socio-political life."[80]
At the end of the 1940s, the Women's Antifascist Front of Yugoslavia (AFŽ), an organization founded during the Resistance to involve women in politics, was tasked with implementing a socialist policy for the emancipation of women, targeting in particular the most backward rural areas. AFŽ activists were immediately confronted with the gap between officially proclaimed rights and women's daily lives. The reports drawn up by local AFŽ sections in the late 1940s and 1950s testify to the extent of patriarchal domination, physical exploitation and poor access to education faced by the majority of women, particularly in the countryside.[80]
AFŽ also led a campaign against the full veil, which covered the whole body and face, until it was banned in the 1950s.[80]
By the 1970s, thirty years after women's rights were enshrined in the Yugoslav Constitution, the country had undergone a rapid process of modernisation and urbanisation. Women's literacy and access to the labour market had reached unprecedented levels, and inequalities in women's rights had been considerably reduced compared to the inter-war period. Yet full equality was far from being achieved.[80]
Federal units
Internally, the Yugoslav federation was divided into six
In alphabetical order, the republics and provinces were:
Name |
Capital | Flag | Coat of Arms |
Location |
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Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina | Sarajevo | |||
Socialist Republic of Croatia | Zagreb | |||
Socialist Republic of Macedonia | Skopje | |||
Socialist Republic of Montenegro | Titograd (now Podgorica)
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Socialist Republic of Serbia | Belgrade
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Socialist Republic of Slovenia | Ljubljana |
Foreign policy
Under Tito, Yugoslavia adopted a policy of nonalignment in the Cold War. It developed close relations with developing countries by having a leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement, as well as maintaining cordial relations with the United States and Western European countries. Stalin considered Tito a traitor and openly offered condemnation towards him. Yugoslavia provided major assistance to anti-colonialist movements in the Third World. The Yugoslav delegation was the first to bring the demands of the Algerian
On 1 January 1967, Yugoslavia was the first Communist country to open its borders to all foreign visitors and abolish visa requirements.[84] In the same year, Tito became active in promoting a peaceful resolution of the Arab–Israeli conflict. His plan called for Arab countries to recognize the State of Israel in exchange for Israel returning territories it had gained.[85] The Arab countries rejected his land for peace concept. However, that same year, Yugoslavia no longer recognized Israel.
In 1968, following the
Yugoslavia had mixed relations towards
Economy
Despite their common origins, the socialist economy of Yugoslavia was much different from the
Due to Yugoslavia's neutrality and its leading role in the Non-Aligned Movement, Yugoslav companies exported to both Western and Eastern markets. Yugoslav companies carried out construction of numerous major infrastructural and industrial projects in Africa, Europe and Asia.[citation needed] In the 1970s, the economy was reorganized according to Edvard Kardelj's theory of associated labor, in which the right to decision-making and a share in profits of worker-run cooperatives is based on the investment of labour. All companies were transformed into organizations of associated labor. The smallest, basic organizations of associated labor, roughly corresponded to a small company or a department in a large company. These were organized into enterprises which in turn associated into composite organizations of associated labor, which could be large companies or even whole-industry branches in a certain area. Most executive decision-making was based in enterprises, so that these continued to compete to an extent, even when they were part of a same composite organization.
In practice, the appointment of managers and the strategic policies of composite organizations were, depending on their size and importance, often subject to political and personal influence-peddling. In order to give all employees, the same access to decision-making, the basic organisations of associated labor were also applied to public services, including health and education. The basic organizations were usually made up of no more than a few dozen people and had their own
The results of these reforms however were not satisfactory.[
After the relatively prosperous 70s, life conditions deteriorated in Yugoslavia in the 1980s, and were reflected in soaring unemployment rates and inflation. In the late 1980s, the unemployment rate in Yugoslavia was over 17%, with another 20%
The
The Yugoslav currency was the Yugoslav dinar.
Various economic indicators around 1990 were:[92]
- Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2,700% (1989 est.)
- Unemployment rate: 15% (1989)
- GNP: $129.5 billion, per capita $5,464; real growth rate – 1.0% (1989 est.)
- Budget: revenues $6.4 billion; expenditures $6.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1990)
- Exports: $13.1 billion (f.o.b., 1988); commodities—raw materials and semimanufactures 50%, consumer goods 31%, capital goods and equipment 19%; partners—EC 30%, CEMA 45%, less developed countries 14%, US 5%, other 6%
- Imports: $13.8 billion (c.i.f., 1988); commodities—raw materials and semimanufactures 79%, capital goods and equipment 15%, consumer goods 6%; partners—EC 30%, CEMA 45%, less developed countries 14%, US 5%, other 6%
- External debt: $17.0 billion, medium and long term (1989)
- Electricity: 21,000,000 kW capacity; 87,100 million kWh produced, 3,650 kWh per capita (1989)
Transportation
Air transport
In the interwar period, air transport in Yugoslavia was organised by the privately owned
Initial charter public flights were organised by military planes, while the first regular international line after the war was introduced on 6 October 1945 between Belgrade and
While being a Communist country, after the Tito–Stalin split Yugoslavia initiated a period of military neutrality and non-alignment. Its airlines were supplied by both the East and the West.
Railways
The railway system in Yugoslavia was operated by the Yugoslav Railways.[96] Much of the infrastructure was inherited from the pre-WWII period, and the SFRY period was marked by the extension and electrification of the rails.[97] Electric and diesel locomotives were introduced in number from the 1960s onwards. Much of the early rolling stock were European produced, while with time were being replaced with domestically built locomotives, mostly from Rade Končar and carriages, mostly from GOŠA. The main two projects during SFRY period were electrification of the Zagreb–Belgrade railway, and the building of the highly challenging Belgrade–Bar railway.[97] Yugoslav railways operated a number of international services, such as the Orient Express.
Roads
The core of the road network in Yugoslavia was the Brotherhood and Unity Highway which was a highway that stretched over 1,182 km (734 mi),[98] from the Austrian border at Rateče near Kranjska Gora in the northwest via Ljubljana, Zagreb, Belgrade and Skopje to Gevgelija on the Greek border in the southeast. It was the main modern highway in the country, connecting four constituent republics. It was the pioneer highway in Central-Eastern Europe, and the main link between Central and Western Europe with South-Eastern Europe and Middle East. Construction began on the initiative of President Tito. The first section between Zagreb and Belgrade was built with the effort of the Yugoslav People's Army and volunteer Youth Work Actions and was opened in 1950. The section between Ljubljana and Zagreb was built by 54,000 volunteers in less than eight months in 1958.[99]
Maritime and river transportation
With its extensive coast in the
Urban
Accompanying the high urban growth, urban transportation in Yugoslavia was significantly developed in all republic capitals and major cities. Urban bus networks existed in all cities, while many also included trolleybuses and trams. Despite having been planned for decades, Belgrade Metro never materialised, and Belgrade became the major capital in Europe not to have metro.[101][102] Instead, Belgrade city authorities opted for the development of urban rail transport, Beovoz, and an extensive tram, bus and trolley network. Besides capital Belgrade, other cities developed tram networks as well. The urban rail transport infrastructure in Yugoslavia consisted of:
- Bosnia and Herzegovina:
- Croatia:
- Zagreb tram system[103]
- Osijek tram system[103]
- Dubrovnik tram system up to 1970[104]
- Rijeka tram system up to 1952[103]
- Serbia:
- Slovenia:
- Ljubljana tram system up to 1958[107]
- Piran tram systemup to 1953
In the
Communications
Radio and television
One of the founding members of the European Broadcasting Union, Yugoslav Radio Television, known as JRT, was the national public broadcasting system in Yugoslavia.[108] It consisted of eight subnational radio and television broadcast centers with each one headquartered in one of the six constituent republics and two autonomous provinces.[109] Each television center created its own programming independently, and some of them operated several channels. This subnational broadcasting centers became public broadcasters of the newly independent states, with altered names, after the break-up of Yugoslavia. Zagreb Radio started broadcasting on 15 May 1926, and was the first public broadcasting facility in Southeast Europe.[110] On the 30th anniversary of the establishment of Zagreb Radio station, on 15 May 1956, the first television programme was broadcast. This was the first TV station in Yugoslavia and would later become a color station in 1972. RT Belgrade and RT Ljubljana started broadcasting its television programmes two years later, in 1958.
Geography
Like the Kingdom of Yugoslavia that preceded it, the SFRY bordered Italy and Austria to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast,
Demographics
Ethnic groups
The SFRY recognised "nations" (narodi) and "nationalities" (narodnosti) separately;[112] the former included the constituent South Slavic peoples (Croats, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Muslims (from 1971), Serbs and Slovenes), while the latter included other Slavic and non-Slavic ethnic groups. In total, about 26 known sizeable ethnic groups were known to live in Yugoslavia. There was also a Yugoslav ethnic designation, for the people who wanted to identify with the entire country, including people who were born to parents in mixed marriages.[113]
Languages
The population of Yugoslavia spoke mainly three languages: Serbo-Croatian,
Emigration
The small or negative population growth in the former Yugoslavia reflected a high level of emigration. Even before the breakup of the country, during the 1960s and 1970s, Yugoslavia was one of the most important "sending societies" of international migration. An important receiving society was Switzerland, target of an estimated total of 500,000 migrants, who now account for more than 6% of total Swiss population.[citation needed] By the early 1970s, more than one million Yugoslav citizens lived abroad, two-third of which were in West Germany, where they were known as Gastarbeiters.[117] Significant numbers emigrated to Austria, Australia, Sweden and to the United States and Canada as well.
Emigration of Yugoslav workers was legalised in 1963, as Yugoslavia experienced an
Military
The armed forces of SFR Yugoslavia consisted of the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslovenska narodna armija, JNA), Territorial Defense (TO), Civil Defense (CZ) and Milicija (police) in wartime. Socialist Yugoslavia maintained a strong military force. JNA was the main organization of the military forces plus the remnacents of the royal Yugoslav army, and was composed of the ground army, navy and aviation. Militarily, Yugoslavia had a policy of self-sufficiency. Due to its policy of neutrality and non-alignment, efforts were made to develop the country's military industry to provide the military with all its needs, and even for export. Most of its military equipment and pieces were domestically produced, while some was imported both from the East and the West. The regular army mostly originated from the Yugoslav Partisans of World War II.[119]
Yugoslavia had a thriving
Education
Period of the existence of the SFR Yugoslavia was marked by significant development in the field of education.
Universities
The University of Zagreb (founded 1669), University of Belgrade (founded 1808) and the University of Ljubljana (founded 1919) already existed before the creation of Socialist Yugoslavia. Between 1945 and 1992 numerous universities were established throughout the country:[122]
- University of Sarajevo (1949)
- University of Skopje (1949)
- University of Novi Sad (1960)
- University of Niš (1965)
- University of Pristina (1970)
- University of Arts in Belgrade (1973)
- University of Rijeka (1973)
- University of Split (1974)
- University of Titograd (1974)
- University of Banja Luka (1975)
- University of Maribor (1975)
- University of Osijek (1975)
- University of Kragujevac (1976)
- University of Tuzla (1976)
- University of Mostar (1977)
- University of Bitola(1979)
Arts
Prior to the collapse of Yugoslavia in the 1990s, Yugoslavia had a modern multicultural society. Characteristic attention was based on the concept of brotherhood and unity and the memory of the Communist Yugoslav Partisans' victory against fascists and nationalists as the rebirth of the Yugoslav people, although all forms of art flourished freely unlike in other socialist countries. In the SFRY the history of Yugoslavia during World War II was omnipresent, and was portrayed as a struggle not only between Yugoslavia and the Axis Powers, but as a struggle between good and evil within Yugoslavia with the multiethnic Yugoslav Partisans were represented as the "good" Yugoslavs fighting against manipulated "evil" Yugoslavs – the Croatian Ustaše and Serbian
Literature
Significant number of Yugoslav writers supported Yugoslav Partisans efforts during the World War II with some of the most prominent of them being
Graphic arts
Notable painters included:
Film
Music
Traditional music
Prominent
Classical music
The pianist
Popular music
Yugoslavia had a moderately high degree of artistic and musical freedom, owing in part to the Tito–Stalin split, which saw the country pursue positive relations with many countries outside the Eastern Bloc.[134][135]: 862 Popular music in Yugoslavia had a diverse array of stylistic influences from throughout the world.[134] Western-influenced popular music was socially accepted, more so than in Eastern Bloc countries, and was well-covered in the media, which included numerous concerts, music magazines, radio and TV shows. Aspiring artists could travel to the capitalist countries of Western Europe, and bring back musical instruments and equipment.[134]
Prior to
In 1948, Yugoslavia was expelled from Cominform.[135]: 862 Upon this expulsion, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia no longer felt the need to engage in Stalinist-styled cultural policies which suppressed non-propagandist popular music.[135]: 862 However, throughout the 1950s, some Party officials remained antagonistic towards music from Western countries.[135]: 868–869 As the country sought to foster more relationships outside of the Eastern Bloc, Yugoslavia opened up more and more through the late 1950s.[135]: 862 During the 1950s, Yugoslavia welcomed and hosted many famous international stars.[135]: 862
Yugoslavia's economy grew rapidly during the 1950s, enabling more resources to be allocated to consumer goods, including music.
Yugoslavia's entry into 1989 Eurovision Song Contest, "Rock Me", performed by the group Riva, won the contest, marking Yugoslavia's only first place in the competition during its history.
Notable Yugoslav rock acts included
Architectural heritage
Although Yugoslav cities and towns architecturally resembled and followed the styles of Central and Southeastern Europe, what became most characteristic of the SFRY period was the creation of a modernist or brutalist style architecture buildings and neighborhoods. Yugoslav cities expanded greatly during this period and the government often opted for the creation of modernist planned neighborhoods to accommodate the growing working middle-class. Such typical examples are the
- Yugoslav World War II monuments and memorials
- People's Heroes of Yugoslavia monuments
Sports
FPR/SFR Yugoslavia developed a strong athletic sports community, notably in team sports such as association football, basketball, handball, water polo, and volleyball.
Football
The country's biggest footballing achievement came on the club level with
Previously, Red Star had reached the
On the national team level,
Additionally, the
In the youth category,
On the individual player front, Yugoslavia produced some notable performers on the world stage; such as Rajko Mitić, Stjepan Bobek, Bernard Vukas, Vladimir Beara, Dragoslav Šekularac, Milan Galić, Josip Skoblar, Ivan Ćurković, Velibor Vasović, Dragan Džajić, Safet Sušić, Dragan Stojković, Dejan Savićević, Darko Pančev, Robert Prosinečki, and others.
Basketball
Unlike football which inherited a lot of its infrastructure and know-how from the pre-World War II Kingdom of Yugoslavia, basketball had very little prior heritage. The sport was thus nurtured and developed from scratch within the Communist Yugoslavia through individual enthusiasts such as Nebojša Popović, Bora Stanković, Radomir Šaper, Aca Nikolić, and Ranko Žeravica. Though a member of FIBA since 1936, the national team did not qualify for a major competition until after World War II. In 1948, the country's umbrella basketball association, Yugoslav Basketball Federation (KSJ), was established.
Following its major competition debut at
Simultaneously, on the club level, a multi-tier league system was established in 1945 with the
Notable players included Radivoj Korać, Ivo Daneu, Krešimir Ćosić, Zoran Slavnić, Dražen Dalipagić, Dragan Kićanović, Mirza Delibašić, Dražen Petrović, Vlade Divac, Dino Rađa, Toni Kukoč, and Žarko Paspalj.
Water polo
Water polo is another sport with a strong heritage in the era that predates the creation of Communist Yugoslavia. Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, the Yugoslav national team had always been a contender, but never quite managed to make the final step. It was in the 1968 Olympics that the generation led by Mirko Sandić and Ozren Bonačić finally got the gold, beating Soviet Union after extra time.[150] The country won two more Olympic golds – in 1984 and 1988. It also won two World Championship titles – in 1986 and 1991, the latter coming without Croatian players who by that time had already left the national team. The team won only one European Championship title, in 1991. The 1980s and early 1990s were the golden age for Yugoslav water polo during which players such as Igor Milanović, Perica Bukić, Veselin Đuho, Deni Lušić, Dubravko Šimenc, Milorad Krivokapić, Aleksandar Šoštar and others established themselves as among the best in the world.
Handball
Yugoslavia won two Olympic gold medals –
Individual sports
FPR/SFR Yugoslavia also managed to produce a multitude of successful athletes in individual disciplines. Tennis had always been a popular and well-followed sport in the country. Still, due to lack of financial means for tennis infrastructure and support of individual athletes, the participation rates among the Yugoslav youngsters for tennis were always low compared to other sports. All this meant that talented players determined to make it to pro level mostly had to rely on their own families rather than the country's tennis federation. Yugoslav players still managed to produce some notable results, mostly in the women's game. In
It was with the rise of teenage phenom
Skiers have been very successful in World Cup competitions and the Olympics (Bojan Križaj, Jure Franko, Boris Strel, Mateja Svet). Winter-spots had a special boost during the 1984 Winter Olympics held in Sarajevo. Gymnast
National anthem
The national anthem of Yugoslavia was the Pan-Slavic anthem "Hej, Sloveni" (transl. Hey, Slavs). First aired and sung on World War II-era sessions of AVNOJ, it first served as a de facto state anthem of Yugoslavia during its provisional establishment in 1943. It was always intended to serve as a temporary anthem until a more Yugoslav-themed replacement was found, which never happened; as a result, it was constitutionally recognized in 1988 (and as temporary in 1977), after 43 years of continued de facto 'temporary' usage and only years prior to the breakup.[156] The Yugoslav anthem was inherited by its successor state union of Serbia and Montenegro and likewise was never replaced during its existence despite similar expectations.
Legacy
The present-day states which succeeded Yugoslavia are still today sometimes collectively referred to as the former Yugoslavia (or shortened as Ex-Yu or similar). These countries are, listed chronologically:
- Croatia (since 25 June 1991)
- Slovenia (since 25 June 1991)
- North Macedonia (since 25 September 1991; formerly Macedonia)
- Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 3 March 1992)
- Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro; 1992–2006)
- Montenegro (since 3 June 2006)
- Serbia (since 5 June 2006)
- Kosovo (since 17 February 2008; independence disputed)
In 2001, former constituent republics reached the partially implemented Agreement on Succession Issues of the Former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia that became effective on 2 June 2004.[157][158]
All of the successor states are or were candidates for
The successor states of Yugoslavia continue to have a population growth rate that is close to zero or negative. This is mostly due to emigration, which intensified during and after the Yugoslav Wars, during the 1990s to 2000s, but also due to low birth rates. More than 2.5 million refugees were created by the fighting in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, which led to a massive surge in North American immigration. Close to 120,000 refugees from the former Yugoslavia were registered in the United States from 1991 to 2002, and 67,000 migrants from the former Yugoslavia were registered in Canada between 1991 and 2001.[160][161][162][163]
Net population growth over the two decades between 1991 and 2011 was thus practically zero (below 0.1% p.a. on average). Broken down by territory:[needs update]
Country | 1991 | 2011 | Growth rate p.a. ( CAGR ) |
Growth rate (2011 est.) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 4,377,000 | 3,688,865[164] | –0.9% | N/A |
Croatia | 4,784,000 | 4,288,000 | −0.6% | −0.08% |
North Macedonia | 2,034,000 | 2,077,000 | +0.1% | +0.25% |
Montenegro | 615,000 | 662,000 | +0.4% | −0.71% |
Serbia | 9,778,991 | 7,310,000[a] | −1.5% | −0.47% |
Slovenia | 1,913,000 | 2,000,000 | +0.2% | −0.16% |
Total | 23,229,846[165] | 21,115,000 | −0.5% | N/A |
Source: The CIA Factbook estimates for the successor states, as of July 2011[update]
|
Remembrance of the time of the joint state and its perceived positive attributes, such as the social stability, the possibility to travel freely, the level of education and the welfare system, is typically referred to as Yugo-nostalgia.[166] People who identify with the former Yugoslav state may self-identify as Yugoslavs. The social, linguistic, economic and cultural ties between former Yugoslav countries are sometimes referred to as the "Yugosphere".[167][168]
Notes
- ^ Excluding Kosovo.
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External links
- Orders and Decorations of the SFRY Archived 21 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- List of leaders of SFRY
- Yugoslavia Archive at marxists.org
- Yugoslavia's Self-Management by Daniel Jakopovich
- "Yugoslavia: the outworn structure" (CIA) Report from November 1970
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