SM-65 Atlas
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LOX | |
Convair X-11 / SM-65 Atlas | |
---|---|
Place of origin | United States |
Service history | |
In service | 1959–1964 |
Used by | United States Air Force |
Wars | Cold War |
Production history | |
Manufacturer | Convair |
Specifications | |
Mass | 255,950 lb (116,100 kg) for Atlas D w/o payload, 260,000 lb (117,900 kg) for Atlas D with Mk 2/3 RV and W49 warhead, 268,000 lb (121,560 kg) for Atlas E&F with Mk 4 RV and W38 warhead |
Length | 75 ft 1 in (22.89 m) with Mk 2 re-entry vehicle, 82 ft 6 in (25.15 m) with Mk 3 |
Width | 16 ft 1 in (4.90 m) |
Diameter | 10 ft 0 in (3.05 m) |
Engine | 2 × Rocketdyne XLR-89 booster rocket engines each 150,000 lbf (670 kN) sharing one turbopump (Atlas A)
1 × Rocketdyne LR-105 sustainer rocket engine, 2 × Rocketdyne XLR-89 booster rocket engines each 150,000 lbf (670 kN) sharing one turbopump (Atlas B,C) (Atlas A,B,C,D,E,F,G) |
Accuracy | CEP 4,600 ft (1,400 m) |
References |
SM-65 Atlas | |
---|---|
Service history | |
In service | 1959–1964 |
Production history | |
Designed | 1953 (XB-65) |
Produced | 1959–1965 |
No. built | 350 (all versions) Peak deployment level of 129 (30 D, 27 E, 72 F). |
Variants | Atlas A, B/C, D, E/F (ICBMs) SLV-3/3A/3C (NASA use) |
The SM-65 Atlas was the first operational
Development dates to 1946, but over the next few years the project underwent several cancellations and re-starts. The deepening of the Cold War and intelligence showing the Soviet Union was working on an ICBM design led to it becoming a crash project in late 1952, along with the creation of several other missile projects to ensure one would enter service as soon as possible. The first test launch was carried out in June 1957, which failed. The first success of the Soviet R-7 Semyorka in August gave the program new urgency, leading to the first successful Atlas A launch in December. Of the eight flights of the A model, only three were successful, but the later models demonstrated increasing reliability and the C model was cleared for use.
Atlas C was declared operational in September 1959. Even at that time it was considered less than ideal as it had to be fuelled immediately before launch and thus had very slow reaction times. The Air Force still saw its strategic bombers as its primary force and considered Atlas as a last-ditch weapon that would ensure a counterattack in the case the Soviets attempted a sneak attack on the US bomber bases. The initial versions were stored at ground level and thus subject to attack by Soviet bombers, which greatly reduced their suitability for this role. Starting with the F models they were stored in underground silos that offered some protection from air attack. New designs, especially the Minuteman, rendered Atlas obsolete and it was retired from the ICBM role by 1965.
These disadvantages had no bearing on its use for space launches, and Atlas-derived
History
Atlas was the first US ICBM and one of the first large liquid-fueled rockets. As such, its early development was quite chaotic, with plans changing rapidly as flight tests revealed issues.
Atlas began in 1946 with the award of an Army Air Forces research contract to
A second development contract was awarded to
A major development and test contract was awarded to Convair on 14 January 1955 for a 10-foot (3 m) diameter missile to weigh about 250,000 lb (113,400 kg).[5] Atlas development was tightly controlled by the Air Force's Western Development Division, WDD, later part of the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division. Contracts for warhead, guidance and propulsion were handled separately by WDD. The first successful flight of a highly instrumented Atlas missile to full range occurred 28 November 1958. Atlas ICBMs were deployed operationally from 31 October 1959 to 12 April 1965.[6]
The missile was originally designated as the XB-65 experimental bomber; in 1955 it was redesignated SM-65 ("Strategic Missile 65") and, from 1962, it became CGM-16. This letter "C" stood for "coffin" or "Container", the rocket being stored in a semi-hardened container; it was prepared for launch by being raised and fueled in the open. The Atlas-F (HGM-16) was stored vertically underground, but launched after being lifted to the surface.[7]
By 1965, with the second-generation Titan II having reached operational status, the Atlas was obsolete as a missile system and had been phased out of military use. Many of the retired Atlas D, E, and F missiles were used for space launches into the 1990s.[2]
The penetrating lubricant WD-40 found its first use as a corrosion-inhibiting coating for the outer skin of the Atlas missile.[8]
Missile details
The Atlas's complicated, unconventional design proved difficult to debug compared with rocket families such as Thor and Titan which used conventional aircraft-style structures and two stage setups and there were dozens of failed launches during the early years. After watching Atlas Serial 7D explode shortly after its nighttime launch, Mercury astronaut Gus Grissom remarked "Are we really going to get on top of one of those things?"[9] The numerous failures led to Atlas being dubbed an "Inter County Ballistic Missile" by missile technicians, but by 1965 most of the problems had been worked out and it was a reliable launch vehicle. Nearly every component in the Atlas managed to fail at some point during test flights, from the engine combustion chambers to the tank pressurization system to the flight control system, but Convair engineers noted with some pride that there had never been a repeat of the same failure more than three times, and every component malfunction on an Atlas flight was figured out and resolved. The last major design hurdle to overcome was unstable engine thrust, which caused three Atlas missiles (Serial 51D and 48D in 1960 and Serial 27E in 1961) to explode on their launching stands.
Pressure stabilized tanks
Atlas was unusual in its use of
'Stage-and-a-half'
Atlas was informally classified as a "stage-and-a-half" rocket, with a central sustainer engine and set of two booster engines that were all started at launch, each drawing from a single set of propellant tanks.
Engines
The booster engine consisted of two large thrust chambers. On the Atlas A/B/C, one turbopump assembly powered both booster engines. On the Atlas D, the booster engines had separate pump assemblies.[13] On the Atlas E/F, each booster turbopump also got its own gas generator. Later space launcher variants of the Atlas used the MA-5 propulsion system with twin turbopumps on each booster engine, driven by a common gas generator.[12] The boosters were more powerful than the sustainer engine and did most of the lifting for the first two minutes of flight. In addition to pitch and yaw control, they could also perform roll control in the event of a vernier failure. The sustainer engine on all Atlas variants consisted of a single thrust chamber with its own turbopump and gas generator, which also powered two small pressure-fed vernier engines.[13] The verniers provided roll control and final velocity trim. The total sea level thrust of all five thrust chambers was 360,000 lbf (1,600 kN) for a standard Atlas D. Atlas E/F had 375,000 pounds of thrust. Total sea level thrust for these three-engine Atlas Es and Fs was 389,000 lbf (1,730 kN).[15] Launcher variants of the Atlas often had performance enhancements to the engines.[16]
Guidance
The Atlas missiles A through D used radio
The ground based guidance computer was a key part of the missile system, until guidance computers were
Warhead
The warhead of the Atlas D was originally the G.E. Mk 2 "heat sink"
Comparison with R-7
The
Missile versions
SM-65A Atlas
The Convair X-11/SM-65A Atlas/Atlas A was the first full-scale prototype of the Atlas missile, first flying on 11 June 1957.[22] It was a test model designed to verify the structure and propulsion system, and had no sustainer engine or separable stages. The first three Atlas A launches used an early Rocketdyne engine design with conical thrust chambers and only 135,000 pounds of thrust. By the fourth Atlas test, they were replaced by an improved engine design that had bell-shaped thrust chambers and 150,000 pounds of thrust.
There were eight Atlas A test flights, conducted in 1957–1958, of which four were successful. All were launched from
SM-65B Atlas
The Convair X-12/SM-65B was the second prototype version, introducing the
The Atlas B was first flown on 19 July 1958. Of ten total flights, nine were
SM-65C Atlas
The SM-65C Atlas, or Atlas C was the third prototype Atlas version, a more refined model with improved, lighter-weight components. a bigger LOX tank, and a smaller fuel tank. First flown on 24 December 1958, it was the final development version. It was originally planned to be used as the first stage of the Atlas-Able rocket, but following an explosion during a static test on 24 September 1959, this was abandoned in favor of the Atlas D.[24] Six flights were made, all sub-orbital ballistic test flights of the Atlas, with three tests succeeding, and three failing.[25] All launches were conducted from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, at Launch Complex 12.[26]
SM-65D Atlas
The SM-65D Atlas, or Atlas D, was the first operational version of the Atlas missile and the basis for all Atlas space launchers, debuting in 1959.[27] Atlas D weighed 255,950 lb (116,100 kg) (without payload) and had an empty weight of only 11,894 lb (5,395 kg); the other 95.35% was propellant. Dropping the 6,720 lb (3,048 kg) booster engine and fairing reduced the dry weight to 5,174 lb (2,347 kg), a mere 2.02% of the initial gross weight of the vehicle (still excluding payload). This very low dry weight gave Atlas D a range of up to 9,000 miles (14,500 km), or to orbit payloads without requiring an upper stage.[28] It first flew on 14 April 1959.
To provide the United States with an interim or emergency ICBM capability, in September 1959 the Air Force deployed three SM-65D Atlas missiles on open launch pads at
SM-65E Atlas
The SM-65E Atlas, or Atlas-E, was the first 3-engine operational variant of the Atlas missile, the third engine resulting from splitting the two booster thrust chambers into separate engines with independent sets of turbopumps. It first flew on 11 October 1960, and was deployed as an operational
A major enhancement in the Atlas E was the new all-inertial system that obviated the need for ground control facilities. Since the missiles were no longer tied to a central guidance control facility, the launchers could be dispersed more widely in what was called a 1 × 9 configuration, with one missile silo located at one launch site each for the nine missiles assigned to the squadron.[15]
Atlas-E launches were conducted from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, at Launch Complexes 11 and 13, and Vandenberg Air Force Base at
SM-65F Atlas
The SM-65F Atlas, or Atlas-F, was the final operational variant of the Atlas missile. It first flew on 8 August 1961, and was deployed as an operational ICBM between September 1962 and April 1965.
The Atlas F was essentially a quick-firing version of the Atlas E, modified to be stored in a vertical position inside underground concrete and steel silos. It was nearly identical to the E version except for interfaces associated with their different basing modes (underground silo for F) and the fuel management system.[32] When stored, the missile sat atop an elevator. If placed on alert, it was fueled with RP-1 (kerosene) liquid fuel, which could be stored inside the missile for extended periods. If a decision was made to launch, it was fueled with liquid oxygen. Once the liquid oxygen fueling was complete, the elevator raised the missile to the surface for launching.[33]
This method of storage allowed the Atlas F to be launched in about ten minutes,[34] a saving of about five minutes over the Atlas D and Atlas E, both of which were stored horizontally and had to be raised to a vertical position before being fueled.[34]
Atlas-F launches were conducted from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, at Launch Complexes 11 and 13, and Vandenberg Air Force Base at
Operational deployment
Strategic Air Command deployed 13 operational Atlas ICBM squadrons between 1959 and 1962. Each of the three missile variants, the Atlas D, E, and F series, were deployed and based in progressively more secure launchers.[35]: 216
Service history
The number of Atlas intercontinental ballistic missiles in service, at the end of each year:[30]: Table 3
Date | CGM-16D (Atlas D) |
CGM-16E (Atlas E) |
HGM-16F (Atlas F) |
---|---|---|---|
1959 | 6 | 0 | 0 |
1960 | 12 | 0 | 0 |
1961 | 30 | 27 | 0 |
1962 | 30 | 27 | 72 |
1963 | 20 | 27 | 72 |
1964 | 0 | 0 | 72 |
Atlas-D deployment
In September 1959 the first operational Atlas ICBM squadron went on operational alert at
- Francis E. Warren AFB, Wyoming(2 September 1960 – 1 July 1964)
- 564th Strategic Missile Squadron(6 missiles)
- 565th Strategic Missile Squadron (9 missiles)
- 385th Bombardment (later Strategic Aerospace) Wing
- Offutt AFB, Nebraska(30 March 1961 – 1 October 1964)
- 549th Strategic Missile Squadron (9 missiles)
The first site at Warren for the 564th SMS consisted of six launchers grouped together, controlled by two launch operations buildings, and clustered around a central guidance control facility. This was called the 3 × 2 configuration: two launch complexes of three missiles each constituted a squadron.[35]: 218
At the second Warren site for the 565th SMS and at Offutt AFB, Nebraska, for the 549th SMS, the missiles were based in a 3 x 3 configuration: three launchers and one combined guidance control/launch facility constituted a launch complex, and three complexes comprised a squadron. At these later sites the combined guidance and control facility measured 107 by 121 ft (33 by 37 m) with a partial basement. A dispersal technique of spreading the launch complexes were 20 to 30 miles (30 to 50 km) apart was also employed to reduce the risk that one powerful nuclear warhead could destroy multiple launch sites.[35]
Atlas-E deployment
The SM-65E Atlas were based in horizontal "semi-hard" or "coffin" facilities that protected the missile against over-pressures up to 25 psi (170 kPa). In this arrangement the missile, its support facilities, and the launch operations building were housed in reinforced concrete structures that were buried underground; only the roofs protruded above ground level. These units were:[37]
- 92nd Bombardment (later Strategic Aerospace) Wing
- Fairchild Air Force Base, Washington (28 September 1961 – 17 February 1965)
- 567th Strategic Missile Squadron, (9 missiles)
- 21st Strategic Aerospace Division
- Forbes AFB, Kansas(10 October 1961 – 4 January 1965)
- 548th Strategic Missile Squadron, (9 missiles)
- Francis E. Warren AFB, Wyoming(20 November 1961 – 4 January 1965)
- 566th Strategic Missile Squadron (9 missiles)
Atlas-F deployment
The six SM-65F Atlas squadrons were the first ICBMs to be stored vertically in underground silos. Built of heavily reinforced concrete, the huge silos were designed to protect the missiles from over-pressures of up to 100 psi (690 kPa).[7] These units were:[38]
|
|
The Atlas F's employment was dangerous due to the flammability of the stored liquid rocket fuels. Four sites and their missiles were destroyed during propellant loading exercises (known as PLXs) when liquid oxygen leaked and fires ensued. On 1 June 1963 Roswell's site 579-1 was destroyed by explosion and fire. On 13 February 1964 Roswell's site 579-5 was destroyed, and a month later on 9 March 1964 site 579-2 was also destroyed by explosion and fire. Finally, on 14 May 1964 an Altus AFB site, 577-6 in Frederick, Oklahoma, was also destroyed by explosion and fire during a PLX. Fortunately the crews all survived. None of the damaged sites were repaired or returned to service.
Retirement as an ICBM
After the
After its retirement from operational ICBM service in 1965, the ICBMs were refurbished and used for close to forty years as space launch vehicle boosters.[34]
Atlas-A to -C launch history
SM-65A (Atlas A) variant launch history
Eight flights of Atlas A occurred during the history of this variant.[41]
(SM-65A) Date |
Time ( GMT )
|
Pad | Serial | Apogee
|
Outcome |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1957-06-11 | 19:37 | LC-14 | 4A | 2 km (1.2 mi) | Failure |
1957-09-25 | 19:57 | LC-14 | 6A | 3 km (1.9 mi) | Failure |
1957-12-17 | 17:39 | LC-14 | 12A | 120 km (75 mi) | Success |
1958-01-10 | 15:48 | LC-12 | 10A | 120 km (75 mi) | Success |
1958-02-07 | 19:37 | LC-14 | 13A | 120 km (75 mi) | Failure |
1958-02-20 | 17:46 | LC-12 | 11A | 90 km (56 mi) | Failure |
1958-04-05 | 17:01 | LC-14 | 15A | 100 km (62 mi) | Success |
1958-06-03 | 21:28 | LC-12 | 16A | 120 km (75 mi) | Success |
SM-65B (Atlas B) variant launch history
Ten flights of Atlas B occurred during the history of this variant.[42]
(SM-65B) Date |
Time ( GMT )
|
Pad | Serial | Apogee
|
Outcome | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1958-07-19 | 17:36 | LC-11 | 3B | 10 km (6.2 mi) | Failure | |
1958-08-02 | 22:16 | LC-13 | 4B | 900 km (560 mi) | Success | |
1958-08-29 | 04:30 | LC-11 | 5B | 900 km (560 mi) | Success | |
1958-09-14 | 05:24 | LC-14 | 8B | 900 km (560 mi) | Success | |
1958-09-18 | 21:27 | LC-13 | 6B | 100 km (62 mi) | Failure | |
1958-11-18 | 04:00 | LC-11 | 9B | 800 km (500 mi) | Failure | |
1958-11-29 | 02:27 | LC-14 | 12B | 900 km (560 mi) | Success | First full-range test flight |
1958-12-18 | 22:02 | LC-11 | 10B | N/A | Success | Placed SCORE satelliteinto 185 km (115 mi) x 1,484 km (922 mi) x 32.3° orbit |
1959-01-16 | 04:00 | LC-14 | 13B | 100 km (62 mi) | Failure | |
1959-02-04 | 08:01 | LC-11 | 11B | 900 km (560 mi) | Success |
SM-65C (Atlas C) variant launch history
Six flights of Atlas C occurred during the history of this variant.[43]
(SM-65C) Date |
Time ( GMT )
|
Pad | Serial | Apogee
|
Outcome |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1958-12-24 | 04:45 | LC-12 | 3C | 900 km (560 mi) | Success |
1959-01-27 | 23:34 | LC-12 | 4C | 900 km (560 mi) | Failure |
1959-02-20 | 05:38 | LC-12 | 5C | 100 km (62 mi) | Failure |
1959-03-19 | 00:59 | LC-12 | 7C | 200 km (120 mi) | Failure |
1959-07-21 | 05:22 | LC-12 | 8C | 900 km (560 mi) | Success |
1959-08-24 | 15:53 | LC-12 | 11C | 900 km (560 mi) | Success |
Survivors
- HGM-16F Atlas is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. For years the missile was displayed outside the museum. In 1998 it was removed from display. It was restored by the museum's restoration staff and returned to display in the museum's new Missile Silo Gallery in 2007. The stage is currently in storage at the museum.[44] The white nose cone atop the museum's Atlas is an AVCO IV re-entry vehicle built to contain a nuclear warhead. This nose cone actually stood alert in defense of the United States, as it was initially installed on an Atlas on 2 October 1962 at a Denton Valley launch site near Clyde, Texas.[45]
- Atlas 8A is displayed in front of the Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum in Ashland, Nebraska; reconfigured as an Atlas D.[46]
- Atlas 2E is on display in front of the San Diego Air & Space Museum at Gillespie Field, El Cajon, California.[47]
- Atlas 2D mounted with a Mercury capsule is on display in the Rocket Garden at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, Merritt Island, Florida.[48]
- Atlas 10F is on display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama.[49]
Former survivor:
- Atlas 5A (56–6742) was formerly on display on the lawn in front of the Canada Science and Technology Museum in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, but was removed in February 2015 and dismantled.[50]
-
Atlas 8A, Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum (reconfigured as Atlas D)
-
Atlas 2E, San Diego Air & Space Museum, Gillespie Field
-
Atlas 2D, Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex (mounted with a Mercury capsule)
-
Atlas 10F, U.S. Space & Rocket Center (left, on transporter)
-
Atlas 5A (56–6742), Canada Science and Technology Museum
Gallery
See also
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Related lists
- List of military aircraft of the United States
- List of missiles
References
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency
- ^ Edward Hujsa (28 June 2007). "San Diego's Missile". San Diego Reader. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
- ^ a b Roger Guillemette. "Atlas". U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ a b c Jacob Neufeld (1990). The Development of Ballistic Missiles in the United States Air Force 1945-1960 (PDF). dtic.mil (Report). Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2023. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
- ^ RTV-A-2 Hiroc[1][2]
- ISBN 9780813148076.
- ^ Mike Gruntman, Blazing the Trail, pp. 221–245, AIAA, Reston Virginia, 2004
- ^ a b "Historical Vignette 032 - The Corps Built the Launch Sites for Atlas ICBM". U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. August 2001. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ "Our History". WD-40. Archived from the original on 23 June 2014.
- ^ Steward, David. Seeking Success: A Memoir. p. 44.
- ^ "Rocket R-5". S. P. Korolev RSC Energia. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
- ^ John Pike. "SM-65 Atlas – United States Nuclear Forces". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
- ^ a b c "Variants of the "stage and a half" drive system (MA) of the Atlas rocket". b14643.de. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- ^ a b c d D. McCutcheon, Kimble. "U.S. Manned Rocket Propulsion Evolution - Part 5: The Atlas Missile". enginehistory.org. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
- ^ "The Military Standard - Titan I Missile Overview". themilitarystandard.com. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
- ^ a b "Atlas SM-65". FE Warren Museum. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008.
- ^ Kimble D. McCutcheon (3 August 2022). "Part 5: The Atlas Missile". U.S. Manned Rocket Propulsion Evolution. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
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- ^ Jim O'Connell (4 June 2014). "Fairchild had a missile squadron… Who knew?". U.S. Air Force. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
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- ^ a b c d e "Encyclopedia Astronautica – Atlas A". Astronautix.com. Archived from the original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
- ^ "Cape Canaveral Launch Chronology". Spaceline.org. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
- ^ Andrew J. LePage (13 December 2010). "The Pioneer lunar orbiters: a forgotten failure". thespacerview.com. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
- ^ "Atlas C". astronautix.com. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ "Launch Complex 12". Air Force Space and Missile Museum. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ Andreas Parsch, "Atlas D, Historical Essay", Encyclopedia Astronautica, 2003
- ^ M. D. Black, The Evolution of ROCKET TECHNOLOGY, p. 54, Native Planter, SLC, 2012, payloadz.com under ebook/History
- ^ Troy A. Hallsell (31 October 2019). "The ICBM turns 60". U.S. Air Force. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ a b Robert S. Norris; Thomas B. Cochran (January 1997). US-USSR/Russian Strategic Offensive Nuclear Forces (PDF) (Report). National Resources Defense Council, Inc. p. 16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2021. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ James N. Gibson, Nuclear Weapons of the United States, An Illustrated History, pp. 11–14, Schiffer Publishing Ltd., Atglen, PA, 1996
- ^ "Atlas ICBM Geared to Total Deployment". Aviation Week and Space Technology, 25 September 1961. pp. 143–149.
- ^ John T. Correll (1 July 2005). "How the Air Force Got the ICBM". Air and Space Forces Magazine. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ a b c "Missile Defense Project, "SM-65 Atlas". Missile Threat, Center for Strategic and International Studies. 2 August 2021. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ a b c John C. Lonnquest; David F. Winkler (November 1996). To Defend and Deter: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Missile Program (PDF). dtic.mil (Report). Department of Defense Legacy Resource Management Program Cold War Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
- ^ a b "Atlas D Locations". siloworld.net. Archived from the original on 13 July 2022.
- ^ "Atlas E Locations". siloworld.net. Archived from the original on 14 July 2022.
- ^ "Atlas F Locations". siloworld.net. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020.
- ^ Reggie Manning (5 March 2012). "Air Force history of ICBM development, safeguarding America". U.S. Air Force. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
- ^ Parsch, Andreas. "Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles - Convair B-65/SM-65/CGM-16/HGM-16 Atlas". Archived from the original on 3 October 2002.
- ^ "Atlas A". astronautix.com. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
- ^ "Atlas B". astronautix.com. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
- ^ "Atlas C". astronautix.com. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
- ^ Ty Greenlees (12 June 2020). "7 artifacts you can't see at the Air Force Museum: A peek inside the storage building". Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
- ^ "United States Air Force Museum". Air Force Museum. 1987. p. 118. Retrieved 12 March 2023.
- ^ "Topic Atlas Displays". nasaspaceflight.com. Retrieved 10 March 2023.
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- ^ "Atlas Rocket at Science and Technology Museum dismantled". ctvnews.ca. 25 February 2015. Archived from the original on 10 August 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
Further reading
- Gunston, Bill (1979). Illustrated Encyclopedia of the World's Rockets & Missiles. London: Salamander Books. ISBN 0-517-26870-1.
- Walker, Chuck, & Powell, Joel (2005). Atlas The Ultimate Weapon. Burlington, Ontario, Canada: Apogee Books. ISBN 1-894959-18-3.
- Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1982) [1969]. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II (PDF) (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2016.
External links
- A film clip "Atlas in Orbit. Radios Ike's Message of Peace To World, 1958/12/22 (1958)" is available for viewing at the Internet Archive
- Karel Jan Bossart, Ir.
- Atlas launch vehicle profile
- Atlas D from Encyclopedia Astronautica
- Atlas ICBM Information/History
- Video of an early Atlas launch in 1960
- 1958 Video of "Atlas in Orbit" Newsreel
- Atlas ICBM Launch on 5/23/1960 Video
- 556th Missile Sites
- Atlas D Booster Package Jettison (BPJ) Test Footage