SS Kroonland
SS Kroonland, painted in 1903 by Antonio Jacobsen (1850–1921) | |
History | |
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United States | |
Name | SS Kroonland |
Owner | International Mercantile Marine |
Operator |
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Port of registry |
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Route |
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Builder | |
Yard number | 311 |
Launched | 20 February 1902 |
Sponsored by | Mrs. Rodman Griscom |
Fate | Chartered to USA |
United States | |
Name | USS Kroonland (ID-1541) |
Acquired | 22 April 1918 |
Commissioned | 22 April 1918 |
Decommissioned | 1 October 1919 |
Stricken | 1 October 1919 |
Fate | Returned to International Mercantile Marine |
United States | |
Name | SS Kroonland |
Acquired | Returned by USSB, 1 October 1919 |
Owner | International Mercantile Marine |
Operator |
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Port of registry | New York |
Route |
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Fate | Scrapped, 1927 |
General characteristics (as built) | |
Tonnage | 12,760 GRT |
Length | |
Beam | 60 ft (18.3 m) |
Depth | 42 ft (12.8 m) molded depth |
Propulsion |
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Speed | 17 knots (31 km/h; 20 mph) |
Capacity |
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Crew | 257[1] |
Notes | Sister ship of Finland; Near sister ship of Vaderland, Zeeland |
General characteristics (as USS Kroonland) | |
Displacement | 22,000 long tons (22,000 t)[2] |
Draft | 31 ft 1 in (9.47 m) |
Speed | 16 knots (30 km/h; 18 mph) |
Troops |
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Complement | 414 |
Armament |
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General characteristics (postwar civilian service) | |
Tonnage | 12,241 GRT |
Capacity |
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SS Kroonland was an
Announced by the Red Star Line in 1899, Kroonland was completed in 1902 by William Cramp & Sons of Philadelphia. When launched, she was the largest steamship ever built in the United States. Kroonland sailed from New York City to Antwerp on her maiden voyage in June 1902, beginning service on the route she would sail for the next twelve years. According to The New York Times, Kroonland became the first ship to issue a wireless distress call at sea when she radioed for help during a storm in 1903. In another radio first, Kroonland heard the "first real broadcast of history" in December 1906.[3] Kroonland was one of ten ships that came to the aid of the burning liner Volturno in the mid-Atlantic in October 1913. Despite stormy seas, Kroonland was able to take aboard 89 survivors, for which captain and crew received accolades that included U.S. Congressional Gold Medals.
When the
After the
Design and construction
In July 1899, the Red Star Line announced plans for the construction of four large ocean liners. Two ships, Kroonland and Finland, were to be built at William Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia, and the others, Vaderland and Zeeland, at John Brown & Company of Clydebank in Scotland.[4] By April 1901, the two Scottish-built ships were completed and in service for Red Star,[4] with the construction of the American pair well underway.
Kroonland and the virtually identical Finland,
Kroonland was propelled at up to 17 knots (31 km/h) by twin
The area below the main deck could carry up to 11,000 long tons (11,000 t) of freight and stores. Kroonland's water tanks could carry 200 long tons (200 t) of fresh water. Refrigerated storage was provided for meats and other perishables.[12]
Third-class passenger accommodations were located on the main deck: three compartments for men located forward, and a single compartment for families at the rear. The family compartment had state rooms containing either two, four, or six bunks. All compartments had well-lighted dining areas and wide hallways that led to lavatories and sanitary facilities on the upper deck.[12]
The upper deck housed facilities for officers and first- and second-class passengers. A long
A 220-foot-long (67 m)
Kroonland was
Red Star Line service, 1902–1914
Kroonland sailed on her maiden voyage from New York to Antwerp on 28 June 1902. Kroonland remained on New York – Antwerp service for the next twelve years.
During her time on the New York – Antwerp route, Kroonland was frequently battered by the storms that were typical in the North Atlantic. In November 1904, a Brussels news agency reported a rumor that the ship had foundered in a mid-ocean storm. The report—proved false when Kroonland safely docked in New York[18]—received wide coverage in the American press.[19] While in a heavy December gale, the ship was struck by what contemporary news accounts referred to as a "tidal wave" as high as the tops of her funnels. The wave crashed over the deck, and brought the ship to a standstill. A Belgian passenger's leg was broken when he was thrown into a wall, and a crewman on watch in the crow's nest was sent tumbling to the deck 40 feet (12 m) below with only minor injuries.[20]
In another December gale in 1907, one of the two
Not all of the ship's mishaps were storm-related. In late April 1911, Kroonland hit the breakwater in
The Red Star Line changed Kroonland from American to Belgian registry on 6 November 1908 in Antwerp. One reason given for the change was to allow Red Star to hire non-American crews at lower cost.
International Mercantile Marine submitted a bid for a ten-year contract for Kroonland and Finland to carry U.S. mail between New York and San Francisco after the opening of the Panama Canal. By law, only U.S.-flagged ships could carry U.S. mail under contract. It was also anticipated that U.S.-flagged vessels would receive preferential treatment for canal tolls.[29] In a short ceremony aboard the liner in New York Harbor on 27 December 1911,[30] the Belgian flag was lowered and the American flag was raised to the playing of "The Star-Spangled Banner" by the steamer's band, shortly before she sailed for Antwerp.[31]
Volturno rescue
At about 06:00 on 9 October 1913, Volturno, a Royal Line ship under charter to the Uranium Line, caught fire in a gale on the North Atlantic. The crew fought the fire for about two hours, but, realizing the severity of the fire and the limited options for dousing it in the high seas, Captain Francis Inch of Volturno had his wireless operator send out SOS signals. The westbound Kroonland, already beyond Volturno's location, turned east to aid the burning liner.[32] In the meantime, several of Volturno's lifeboats with women and children aboard were launched with tragic results: all those aboard the lifeboats were killed as the boats capsized or were smashed by the hull of the heaving ship.[33]
In all, ten ships heeded the distress calls, arriving throughout the day and into the next.
Kroonland's lifeboat, manned by a fresh crew, headed back out and returned with 13 steerage passengers.[32] On board Volturno, the crew and some of the male passengers, unable to extinguish the fire, were at least able to keep it from spreading to the aft cargo holds, over which the others on board were gathered. Shortly before dawn, a large explosion—probably of her boilers—rocked Volturno, and the rescuers felt that the ship, which had not been in imminent danger of sinking up to this point, might founder at any time. The tanker Narragansett turned on her pumps and sprayed lubricating oil on the sea to help calm the surface.[33] The combined effect of the oil and the lessening of the storm allowed many more lifeboats to be sent to Volturno's aid. Kroonland launched two more boats herself and saved 75 more, including Captain Inch, the last person to leave the stricken ship.[32] In all, some 520 passengers and crew were rescued by the ten ships—89 on Kroonland alone. The loss of life was limited to around 130, mostly women and children from the early lifeboat launchings.[33]
With all boats recovered by 09:00, the liners resumed their original courses.[33] Kroonland turned west and continued on to the United States, hampered by a cracked crankshaft that slowed her to 12 knots (22 km/h). During her slow passage to New York, Kroonland's cabin passengers drafted a resolution honoring Captain Kreibohm and the crew for their actions during the rescue, and raised $700 for the benefit of the Volturno survivors. Kroonland finally docked in New York on 16 October.[32]
The crew, like those of the other nine ships involved, received many accolades for its rescue efforts. After sending the ship a congratulatory telegram at the time of the rescue,
Kroonland resumed her normal New York – Antwerp service until 11 August 1914,[6] when she arrived at New York with passengers that had narrowly escaped the hostilities beginning to engulf the European continent.[43]
Notable passengers
During her pre-war New York – Antwerp sailings, Kroonland carried some notable and interesting passengers. On 1 August 1904, one of the ship's passengers arrived in New York as somewhat of a mystery woman. She recounted that she had gone out for dinner in Antwerp and awakened to find herself at sea with only the white silk evening gown she was wearing. Having no money or luggage, she was barred from entering the United States and was compelled to remain on board the ship.[44] After her predicament was reported in The New York Times, she received letters and telegrams that included marriage proposals. Her background story and a letter of credit eventually verified her identity, but she was deported after a New York doctor pronounced her insane.[45] Later the same month The New York Times reported on first-class passengers' complaints over privileges for their dogs and the conditions in the kennel aboard the liner. One passenger was determined to have her dog in her state room, and after others joined her in removing canine companions from the kennel, Kroonland's crew took all the dogs back to the kennel. Many of the dog owners refused to speak to the others involved for the duration of the voyage.[46]
On 27 May 1905, American author
Kroonland was the scene of an attempted
American actresses
Kroonland was tangentially involved in a more sinister affair in July 1910. American physician
The American novelist Theodore Dreiser, returning from an extended European tour in April 1912, briefly considered returning on RMS Titanic, but instead sailed two days later on the American-flagged—and less expensive—Kroonland. Dreiser recounted the gloomy mood of Kroonland's passengers after hearing the news of Titanic's sinking, observing that the "terror of the sea had come swiftly and directly home to all".[58] On Kroonland's next return trip to New York, Horst von der Goltz, a self-described German secret agent, eluded German authorities by working as a steward in steerage aboard the liner.[59]
American Line service, 1914–1915
With the German invasion of Belgium in early August 1914, Kroonland was switched to New York – Liverpool service. After two circuits on that route, IMM announced that the ship would be moved to service in the Mediterranean to attract business to offset that lost because of the war.[60] Sailing from New York on 15 October for Gibraltar, Naples, and Piraeus,[6] Kroonland became what IMM called the first large, American-flagged steamer "to engage in trade with the far corners of the Mediterranean".[60] Along with passengers, the ship carried a cargo of rubber and 1,500 long tons (1,520 t) of copper destined for Italy.[61]
On 28 October, British authorities detained the ship at Gibraltar. Because neutral Italy did not restrict the shipment of copper (which could be used in war munitions) to Germany or
In late January 1915,
Panama Pacific Line service, 1915
In May 1915, Kroonland and sister ship Finland were chartered to the
Frequent and progressively worse landslides in the canal disrupted Kroonland's and Finland's service. In August 1915, Kroonland's arrival in New York was delayed a day by a
American Line service, 1915–1917
The delay caused by the October slide in the Panama Canal created uncertainty for the immediate future of Kroonland. Her sister ship Finland was transferred to a New York – London route almost immediately after the canal's closure, but Kroonland was "trapped" on the west side of the continent.[84] By early November, Kroonland—loaded with cargo destined for the United Kingdom, and sailing under the banner of the American Line—departed San Francisco for London, via the Straits of Magellan. On 21 December, the liner arrived at Rio de Janeiro after having run aground, but was found to be undamaged.[85] Continuing on to London, Kroonland departed for New York on 30 January 1916.[6] Although plans were announced in mid 1916 for the two sister ships to return to the Panama Pacific Line, and to add the Hawaiian port of Honolulu to the canal route,[86] both ships remained in North Atlantic service.[6]
On 20 February, Kroonland, continuing to sail for the American Line, returned to New York – Liverpool service after an absence of 18 months.
While returning from Liverpool in early February 1917, passengers and crew on Kroonland witnessed the German U-boat
Because Germany had
Troopship duties
Kroonland served as a
On the morning of 20 May, while the liner steamed toward Liverpool through a heavy fog, a torpedo struck her without exploding.[94] Two minutes later her lookouts spotted a submarine bearing down on Kroonland so close alongside the liner that her guns could not be depressed enough to open fire on the raider. Although the U-boat, apparently also taken by surprise, reversed her screws and tried to turn to avoid a collision, she lightly struck the liner's hull and scraped along her side before diving out of sight. Meanwhile, two more torpedoes came within some 20 feet (6 m) of hitting Kroonland's stern. That afternoon the liner sighted another submarine, surfaced some 1,000 yards (910 m) off her port quarter. Kroonland immediately began shelling the U-boat, forcing the submarine to dive for safety.[94] In early June, this failed torpedo attack on the ship made front-page news in American newspapers.[100]
In September, elements of the
On 15 October 1917, the United States Shipping Board (USSB) requisitioned all American passenger ships over 2,500 GT for use by the government in the war effort. Though it is not clear what immediate impact this had on Kroonland,[103] it is known that the liner was operating as a U.S. Army transport (under the name USAT Kroonland) by February 1918, when she was loaded with materiel and departed New York for Saint-Nazaire, France.[94]
In February 1918, the USSB assigned Kroonland to the transport fleet as a U.S. Army Chartered Transport (USACT),[104] and after her return from France on 9 April, she was converted to a troop transport in New York by the William J. Kennedy Company.[94] A typical conversion from passenger liner to troop transport involved having all of the second- and third-class accommodations ripped out and replaced with berths for troops. Cooking and toilet facilities also had to be greatly expanded to handle the large numbers of men aboard.[105]
After problems with crew discipline aboard Army transports Antilles and Finland when they were torpedoed, the U.S. Navy, led by the recommendations of Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves, insisted that all troop transports be manned entirely by Navy personnel. This was accomplished soon after, to avoid the need for what Gleaves called "ignorant and unreliable men" who were "the sweepings of the docks".[106] Accordingly, Kroonland was handed over to the Navy on 22 April and commissioned the same day.[94]
Transporting troops to France
USS Kroonland was assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force after being commissioned.[107] The ship departed New York on 30 April with the transports Matsonia, Manchuria, and Finland. Martha Washington and Powhatan—two transports that sailed from Newport News, Virginia—rendezvoused with Kroonland's group. South Dakota provided the convoy with protection until its arrival in France on 12 May. Kroonland returned to New York on 1 June.[108]
Kroonland next left New York on 15 June with Finland, DeKalb, George Washington, Covington, Rijndam, the Italian steamer Dante Alighieri, and the British steamer Vauban and met up with the Newport News portion of the convoy—consisting of Lenape, Wilhelmina, Princess Matoika, Pastores, and the British troopship Czar (another fellow Volturno rescuer)[38]—the next morning and set out for France. The convoy was escorted by the cruisers North Carolina and Frederick, and the destroyers Stevens and Fairfax; the battleship Texas and several other destroyers joined in escort duties for the group for a time. The convoy had a false alarm when a floating barrel was mistaken for submarine, but the otherwise uneventful trip concluded at Brest on the afternoon of 27 June.[109]
On 10 July,[110] as Kroonland steamed homeward from France, a lookout spotted a periscope rising from the water about 200 yards (180 m) away. Kroonland opened fire and the fourth shot from her No. 4 gun "burst with a tremendous cloud of dirty blue smoke" exactly on the periscope. The submarine zig-zagged "erratically back and forth until she was directly in the disturbed water" of Kroonland's wake. The transport continued firing until the submarine disappeared, leaving an oil slick which could be seen for at least 15 minutes.[94][Note 9] Kroonland arrived safely in New York on 13 July.[111]
On 26 July, Kroonland, loaded with 3,248 officers and men,[112] departed on her next trip to France. In the company of Finland and the Italian steamer Taormina, she met up with Pocahontas, Susquehanna, and the Italian steamers Duca d'Aosta and Caserta from Newport News.[113] The cruisers Pueblo, Huntington, and destroyers Rathburne and Colhoun escorted the transports.[114] Gordon Van Kleeck, a private in Company F of the U.S. 51st Pioneer Infantry, one of the units aboard Kroonland on this trip, recorded his day-to-day activities in a journal. He stated that the soldiers wore overalls rather than uniforms, and were required to wear life jackets at all times. During the early mornings, the most dangerous time for submarines according to Van Kleeck, the soldiers had to stand by their life rafts until the sun was completely up. Bathing facilities were too small, so several times during the trip the soldiers gathered on deck for salt water baths, which consisted of a hose turned on them by the ship's crew. On 2 August, Finland developed engine trouble and fell back from the convoy, but by the next day, she and a destroyer that stayed with her had rejoined the convoy.[115] The convoy arrived in Brest on 7 August, and Kroonland arrived back in the United States on 19 August.[113]
After embarking 3,334 soldiers, Kroonland began her next crossing on 30 August when she sailed from New York with Susquehanna, Harrisburg and Plattsburg to join the Newport News contingent of Duca d'Aosta, Caserta, and America. Kroonland's convoy was escorted by Frederick and Colhoun.[114][116] As with other Navy ships throughout 1918,[117] Kroonland was not immune to the worldwide Spanish flu pandemic. On this particular crossing, two of her crewmen were felled by the disease as her convoy reached France on 12 September.[116][118] Kroonland returned to New York on 27 September.[116]
At 20:00 on 7 October, Kroonland departed New York on her fifth Navy voyage with 2,567 men. She joined Caserta and the British steamer Euripides in rendezvousing with
Returning troops home
At war's end, the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately.
Kroonland arrived at Newport News on 18 February with 2,805 passengers, including units from the U.S. 36th Infantry Division, after a rough trip from Saint-Nazaire.[126] On her next voyage, she carried another 2,943 officers and men from Saint-Nazaire to Newport News, arriving there on 24 March.[127] The 132nd Regiment of the 61st Field Artillery Brigade returned on the ship, and brigade historian Rex F. Harlow called Kroonland "probably the best vessel on which any units of the brigade returned to America".[128]
On 18 April, Kroonland began her next homeward journey, embarking several companies of the 111th Infantry Regiment of the U.S. 28th Infantry Division among the 3,100 troops carried. Though the fighting was over, the men still wore life jackets for the first three days at sea amidst fears of striking floating mines. George W. Cooper, historian of the 2nd Battalion of the 111th Infantry, reported that some of the men had to serve as stokers during the trip because of a "shortage of help". In the middle of the crossing, the ship "sprung a leak" and took on 10 feet (3.0 m) of water; she had a list for a day or so, until repairs were made. The troops later disembarked at New York on 29 April.[129]
Kroonland returned to Saint-Nazaire in May and loaded Major General Joseph E. Kuhn and some 3,000 men of his
On 21 August, the USSB announced that Kroonland would be released from government service after surveys for repairs had been completed.[133] After leaving New York on 10 August, the ship was in the middle of what would be her final trip returning soldiers. After arriving at Brest, 1,532 officers and men boarded Kroonland for New York, where the transport arrived on 10 September. Also on board was Michael Gilhooley, a 15-year-old stowaway making his fourth unsuccessful attempt to sneak into the United States aboard a Navy transport.[134]
The ship was decommissioned and returned to the USSB on 13 September, and returned to International Mercantile Marine shortly thereafter.[121] In her eight trips returning troops, Kroonland—affectionately called the "Empress of the Seas" by her crew[135]—averaged just under 39 days per turnaround, beating the overall average of all ships by almost a full day, and edging out sister ship Finland by less than that.[136]
Red Star Line service, 1920–1923
After her return to International Mercantile Marine (IMM), the ship underwent a refit at the W. & A. Fletcher Marine Works yard in Hoboken that outfitted her for 242 first-, 310 second-, and 876 third-class passengers.[6] On 8 January 1920, while Kroonland was still under repair, the American Line ship St. Louis, berthed next to her at the Fletcher yard, caught fire. In the multi-alarm fire, firefighters believed that St. Louis was a lost cause, and so focused their efforts on saving Kroonland. At one point, St. Louis heeled over and leaned on Kroonland but the only resulting damages were scorch marks on her side.[137][Note 10]
Kroonland resumed her civilian career in April 1920, sailing once again for the Red Star Line on the New York – Antwerp route.
Kroonland was also involved in several non-weather-related events. On 12 November 1920, after departing Antwerp for New York, she collided with a Dutch tug in the
Kroonland also carried some notable passengers during her time on this route including a majority of the U.S. delegates to the
Passengers were not the ship's only cargo during this time. The New York press reported on gold deposits carried to the United States on the liner several times on the Antwerp route. In a storm-tossed December 1920 voyage, for example, she carried $1,650,000 in gold,
Kroonland began her last voyage on the Antwerp route in January 1923, after which she underwent a refit during the first half of 1923. The ship was converted to cabin- and third-class passengers only,[6] and was painted white.[153] In preparation for her announced return to the Panama Pacific Line in October 1923, more refrigeration and cool air space were added for transporting Southern California agricultural products.[153]
After this refit, the ship was briefly assigned to the American Line for three roundtrips on a New York to
Panama Pacific Line service, 1923–1925
In April 1923, IMM announced that Kroonland and sister ship Finland would be returned to the Panama Pacific Line beginning in late September, sailing from New York to San Francisco via Havana, the Panama Canal, and Los Angeles, with Los Angeles being the west coast hub of operations.[155] On 18 October, Kroonland departed on her first voyage on the route since 1915.[6] Kroonland arrived in Los Angeles Harbor on 3 November amidst fanfare, becoming the largest liner to date to enter that harbor.[156][Note 13]
In contrast to her time on the North Atlantic, Kroonland encountered few weather or mechanical delays on the coast-to-coast route. In December 1923, however, the ship was delayed one day by unusually heavy seas and gales off Baja California.[157] Another delay in October 1924 proved to be fatal, according to the ship's physician. An arrival two days late, caused by adverse currents north of Panama,[158] cost a female passenger her life. Had the ship not been delayed, the physician believed, prompt hospital care could have saved her. On this same trip, Kroonland passed through a "hurricane zone" but was not adversely affected by the storm.[159][Note 14]
In December 1924, the Panama Pacific Line announced that it would add Mongolia to the New York – California route in February to replace Kroonland.[160] Even though press accounts reported as late as March 1925 that Kroonland had sailed her last on the route,[161] she continued carrying passengers and cargo through at least June 1925 because of booming business.[162] Although plans had been announced to convert Kroonland and Finland to freighters upon the delivery of two new ships ordered for the route in late 1924, there is no evidence that this was ever carried out.[163]
Notable passengers
Kroonland carried her share of notable passengers during her second stint for the Panama Pacific Line. On her first voyage, passengers included American
Other notable passengers included professional baseball player
American Line service, 1925–1926
In October 1925, the American Line announced plans for the liner to sail on a weekly New York – Miami route. Kroonland, supplanted H. F. Alexander[Note 15] of the Admiral Line as the largest ship in Miami service, and sailed from Pier 62 in New York on Thursdays, arrived and departed Miami on Sundays, and returned to New York on Wednesdays. Though Kroonland's passenger capacity was potentially much larger, she was outfitted for 500 passengers in first class only.[173] She sailed on her first voyage with 400 passengers, including American professional golfer Gene Sarazen, on 10 December.[174]
By the time the seasonal service to Miami ended in late March 1926,[175] Kroonland had carried 11,000 passengers on the route.[176] Though plans were announced for the liner to resume the route the following winter,[175] this did not happen.[176] IMM offered no reasons, but conditions in Miami at the end of 1926 were very different from the previous year. The wild South Florida real estate boom had collapsed in mid 1926,[177] and the Great Miami Hurricane struck on 18 September, killing more than 325 and leaving as many as 50,000 residents homeless,[177] while causing some $100 million damage (equivalent to $1,721 million in 2023).[178][179] With no place to put the aging ship, IMM laid up Kroonland in Hoboken.[176]
The ship was later sold to
Notes
- International Mercantile Marine, were separate companies. See: "Made consignees pay twice for freight"(PDF). The New York Times. 26 January 1904. p. 16. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Typically, crew members had no contracts and had to "sign on" after each voyage. See: Coons and Varias, p. 125.
- ^ It is not entirely clear from contemporary sources whether Kreibohm actually received both a watch and a gold medal. Stathis (p. 17) indicates Kreibohm did, in fact, receive a gold medal.
- ^ The smaller Great Northern of the Northern Pacific Line transited the canal on the same date.
- ^ Helen Herron Taft had sailed on Kroonland ten years before, in October 1905
- ^ Sources are unclear under what purview Kroonland sailed. Bonsor (p. 856) simply lists "1917 US troopship". Kroonland is recorded as being a United States Army transport ship from mid-February 1918 by the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (See entry here Archived 19 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine).
- ^ This may actually be Ionian, a steamer with the Allan Line that was engaged in troop transport around this time. See Bonsor, vol. 1, p. 322.
- ^ Several of these ships were carrying Australian and New Zealand troops, and had been the first transports loaded with troops to use the Panama Canal. See "AWM Collection Record: PR91/118". Australian War Memorial. 29 May 2008. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ On her return journey, Covington's encounter with a submarine had a decidedly different outcome. She was torpedoed by U-86 on 1 July and sank the next afternoon. See: "Covington". DANFS. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ St. Louis was never rebuilt and her hull was scrapped in Italy in 1925. (See "St. Louis". DANFS.)
- ^ The fourth sister ship, Vaderland, had been sunk by U-70 off the Irish coast on 4 June 1917 (See Bonsor, vol. 2, p. 855).
- ^ There were no further reports on the death or investigation in the newspaper.
- ^ On Kroonland's previous visits, she had to anchor offshore and use lighters to transfer passengers and cargo. See: "Notables welcome Kroonland". Los Angeles Times. 4 November 1923. p. I-3.
- Yucatan Peninsulaand moved across Cuba, Florida, and into the Atlantic.
- ^ H. F. Alexander was a later name for Great Northern, the ship that transited the Panama Canal the same day as Kroonland back in February 1915.
- ^ The Associated Press article did not state whether the career totals included wartime service.
References
- ^ "Red Star Line canal service may open May 1". The Christian Science Monitor. 15 August 1914. p. 23.
- ^ a b Gleaves, p. 246.
- ^ a b Bliss, p. 3.
- ^ a b Bonsor, p. 840.
- Naval Historical Center (9 March 2008). "Online Library of Selected Images: U.S. Navy ships: USS Kroonland (ID # 1541), 1918–1919". Archived from the originalon 29 August 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Bonsor, p. 856.
- ^ Bonsor, p. 855.
- ^ OCLC 1775222.
- ^ Colton, Tim. "William Cramp & Sons Shipbuilding Co., Philadelphia PA". Shipbuildinghistory.com. Colton Companies. Archived from the original on 20 December 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2008. U.S. Navy ships listed are by displacement.
- ^ Pollack, p. 109.
- ^ William Cramp, p. 133.
- ^ a b c William Cramp, p. 134.
- ^ a b c d William Cramp, p. 135.
- ^ William Cramp, p. 136.
- ^ "Huge steamship launched" (PDF). The New York Times. 21 February 1902. p. 13. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ a b Williams, p. 227.
- ^ "The Kroonland disabled" (PDF). The New York Times. 9 December 1903. p. 1. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ a b "Kroonland safe in port". The Washington Post. 22 November 1904. p. 2.)
- ^ "Kroonland foundered?". Los Angeles Times. 20 November 1904. p. 1. Also, "Great steamship may have foundered in midocean". Chicago Daily Tribune. 20 November 1904. p. 1.
- ^ "Struck by tidal wave". The Washington Post. 22 December 1904. p. 1.
- ^ "Kroonland towed to port" (PDF). The New York Times. 11 December 1907. p. 4. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Ship in without passengers" (PDF). The New York Times. 3 January 1908. p. 6. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Liners delayed by gales" (PDF). The New York Times. 25 February 1910. p. 8. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Kroonland's shaft broken" (PDF). The New York Times. 16 May 1910. p. 1. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Kroonland slightly disabled" (PDF). The New York Times. 1 May 1911. p. 4. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Kroonland stuck in mud". The Washington Post. 9 January 1913. p. 1.
- ^ "American flag is lowered". The Washington Post. 6 November 1908. p. 1.
- ^ "Kroonland's crew quits" (PDF). The New York Times. 28 May 1911. p. 1. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Vose, p. 425
- ^ Vose, p. 418.
- ^ "Red Star Line ships added to the U.S. Merchant Marine". The Christian Science Monitor. 27 December 1911. p. 1. Finland's registry was changed on 3 January 1912.
- ^ a b c d e "Inch gives his dog to Capt. Kreibohm" (PDF). The New York Times. 17 October 1913. p. 4. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f "135 perish when ship burns at sea". The Washington Post. 12 October 1913. p. 1.
- ^ "Ships near a crash in aiding Volturno" (PDF). The New York Times. 19 October 1913. p. 8. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "King of the Belgians and the rescuers". The Times. 17 October 1913. p. 5.
- ^ Transatlantic, Marconi (5 January 1914). "Decorated for Volturno heroism" (PDF). The New York Times. p. 3. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Transatlantic, Marconi (9 January 1914). "Honors Kroonland men" (PDF). The New York Times. p. 4. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ a b "Gallantry at sea". The Times. 11 March 1914. (Convenience copy located here.)
- ^ a b "Congress honors heroes" (PDF). The New York Times. 14 March 1914. p. 2. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Stathis, p. 17.
- ^ "Hero medals for Kroonland men". The Washington Post. 11 April 1914. p. 7.
- ^ "Honor cross to Kreibohm" (PDF). The New York Times. 26 June 1916. p. 13. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Fled on Kroonland as the war started" (PDF). The New York Times. 12 August 1914. p. 4. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Woman crosses ocean in an evening gown" (PDF). The New York Times. 3 August 1904. p. 1. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Curious go to gaze at one-gowned traveler" (PDF). The New York Times. 4 August 1904. p. 7. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Sea dogs make 1,000 leagues of trouble" (PDF). The New York Times. 30 August 1904. p. 7. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "1,500 in liners' cabins to sail abroad to-day" (PDF). The New York Times. 27 May 1905. p. 8. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Government to buy Fort Hamilton land" (PDF). The New York Times. 9 October 1905. p. 2. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Bishop Satterlee's return" (PDF). The New York Times. 14 August 1906. p. 7. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Brent, p. 290.
- ^ "Fight and suicide at sea" (PDF). The New York Times. 21 October 1908. p. 16. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Mrs. W. H. Thompsons sail" (PDF). The New York Times. 1 May 1910. p. 11. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Grant, p. 375
- ^ "World Missionary Conference to see a Japanese bishop". The Christian Science Monitor. 31 May 1910.
- OCLC 9346491.
- ^ The Atlanta Constitution. 23 November 1910. pp. 1–2.
- ^ "Saw Crippen in train". The Washington Post. 20 July 1910. p. 3.
- ^ Loving, pp. 214–15.
- ^ von der Goltz, p. 112.
- ^ a b "International Line puts off interest" (PDF). The New York Times. 25 September 1914. p. 14. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ a b McMaster, p. 53.
- ^ a b "Britain frees American ship". Chicago Daily Tribune. 8 November 1914. p. 2.
- ^ "Kroonland detained". The Wall Street Journal. 29 October 1914. p. 4.
- ^ "Copper removed from Kroonland". The Wall Street Journal. 5 November 1914. p. 7.
- ^ Fess, p. 260.
- ^ U.S. Dept. of State, pp. 32–33.
- ^ "American Line, under the American Flag…". The New York Times. 4 November 1914. p. 9.
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- ^ a b c d "Long fair weather cruise" (PDF). The New York Times. 15 April 1915. p. 9. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ a b "'Movies' to show U.S. shops" (PDF). The New York Times. 20 May 1914. p. 19. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Exposition ship to South America" (PDF). New York Times. 8 March 1914. p. 4. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- OCLC 1755893.
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- OCLC 1771591.
- ^ Jones and Hollister, p. 41.
- ^ "50 brides on steamer". The Washington Post. 23 May 1915. p. 13.
- ^ Panama Pacific Line (22 May 1915). Panama Pacific Line Passenger List. p. 2. Convenience copy of relevant page can be found here Archived 25 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 13 May 2008.
- ^ a b "The ideal trip and time…". The New York Times. 18 March 1915. p. 17.
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- ^ Todd, pp. 243–45.
- ^ "Kroonland due here today" (PDF). The New York Times. 22 August 1915. p. 14. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Length of delay: "Visitors come on Kroonland". Los Angeles Times. 23 September 1915. p. II-7. Both ships affected: "Panama Canal is blocked by slide". The Washington Post. 6 September 1915. p. 1.
- ^ "Slide in Gaillard Cut blocks waterway traffic and canal may be closed for months to come". The Washington Post. 19 December 1915. p. R-9.
photo caption
- ^ "Must close canal for rest of month" (PDF). The New York Times. 5 October 1915. p. 4. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Goethals tackles long canal fight" (PDF). The New York Times. 14 October 1915. p. 3. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Mrs. Taft and daughter on ship held up by slides at the canal". The Washington Post. 6 October 1915. p. 4.
- ^ "Steamer Finland, in canal service, to go to Europe". The Christian Science Monitor. 23 October 1915. p. 8.
- ^ "Steamer Kroonland safe" (PDF). The New York Times. 22 December 1915. p. 6. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "New traffic for this port soon". Los Angeles Times. 28 June 1916. p. I-5.
- ^ a b "Saw Dutch ship sunk". The Washington Post. 12 February 1917. p. 2.
- ^ "Argentine gold deposited here". The Wall Street Journal. 28 June 1916. p. 8.
- OCLC 5224408.
- ^ "The Times Fund". The Times. 3 January 1917. p. 11.
- ^ a b "Kroonland here; saw U-boat raid" (PDF). The New York Times. 12 February 1917. p. 2. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Helgason, Guðmundur. "Ships hit during WWI: Gamma". The U-boat War. Uboat.net. Retrieved 21 June 2008. According to the source, there was only one Dutch ship sunk on 1 February 1917, Gamma, which was sunk off the coast of Ireland.
- ^ "Five in from war zone". The Washington Post. 23 February 1917. p. 3.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Kroonland". DANFS.
- ^ a b "Kroonland will use oil" (PDF). The New York Times. 24 February 1917. p. 13. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- OCLC 1771591.
- ^ Burling, p. 445.
- ^ "Detain Manchuria to put guns on her" (PDF). The New York Times. 4 March 1917. p. 3.
- ^ Bureau of Ordnance, p. 40. The other six were steamers Manchuria, Mongolia, New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and St. Paul.
- ^ "Says two torpedoes hit the Kroonland" (PDF). New York Times. 4 June 1917. p. 1. Retrieved 21 June 2008. "Torpedoes graze Kroonland as two submarines attack". The Washington Post. 4 June 1917. p. 1. "Four torpedoes fired at U.S. liner Kroonland by two German U-boats". The Atlanta. 4 June 1917. p. 1.
- ^ a b Thompson and Ferrell, pp. 5–8.
- ^ a b Chambers, Lawrence Dudley (17 July 2005). "Corporal Lawrence Dudley Chambers". Dawn Chambers. Archived from the original (World War I diary) on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Crowell and Wilson, p. 319.
- ^ Crowell and Wilson, pp. 320, 647.
- ^ Crowell and Wilson, p. 316.
- ^ Gleaves, pp. 108–10.
- ^ Gleaves, p. 240.
- ^ Crowell and Wilson, p. 608.
- ^ List of ships, date of arrival in Brest: Crowell and Wilson, pp. 610–11. Battleship Texas and other convoy details: Cutchins and Stewart, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Gleaves, on p. 170, reports the date as 20 July.
- ^ Crowell and Wilson, pp. 610–11.
- ^ Crowell and Wilson, p. 555.
- ^ a b Crowell and Wilson, p. 614.
- ^ a b Crowell and Wilson list the destroyer as "Calhoun". The only USS Calhoun ever was a former Confederate steamer captured during the American Civil War.
- ^ Van Kleeck, Gordon. "Pvt. Gordon Van Kleeck, Co. F. 51 Pioneer Inf., American Expeditionary Forces". Ancestral Photographs of Upstate New York. Roxy Triebel. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ a b c Crowell and Wilson, pp. 557, 616.
- NHC, Personal account by Rear Admiral William B. Caperton; Gleaves, p. 190.
- ^ Bureau of Naval Personnel, Officers and Enlisted Men…, pp. 242, 328. The source did not provide information on whether there were any deaths among Army personnel aboard.
- ^ a b Crowell and Wilson, p. 618
- ^ Crowell and Wilson, p. 561
- ^ a b c Gleaves, pp. 246–47.
- ^ Gleaves, p. 31.
- ^ Location of departure: "Shipping and Mails" (PDF). The New York Times. 7 December 1918. p. 21. Retrieved 21 June 2008. All other details: "8,000 more troops arrive in harbor" (PDF). The New York Times. 12 December 1918. p. 7. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Chicago girl, gassed in war, arrives in US". Chicago Daily Tribune. 12 December 1918. p. 3.
- ^ "Sailors act as hosts" (PDF). The New York Times. 26 December 1918. p. 3. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Nature of trip: White, pp. 210–11. Number of troops, destination: "5,805 Yanks land at Newport News". The Washington Post. 19 February 1919. p. 10.
- ^ "6,801 arrive at Newport News". The Washington Post. 25 March 1919. p. 4.
- ^ Harlow, p. 191.
- ^ Composition, number of troops: "10,000 Yanks reach New York". Chicago Daily Tribune. 30 April 1919. p. 4. Other voyage details: Cooper, p. 176.
- ^ Number, identity of troops:"Gen. Kuhn arrives with 3,000 of 79th" (PDF). The New York Times. 30 May 1919. p. 7. Retrieved 21 June 2008. Other trip details: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Official History…, pp. 242, 247, 283.
- ^ "Stowaway lost father at Thierry". The Washington Post. 29 June 1919. p. 18.
- ^ "3,642 of A.E.F. return" (PDF). The New York Times. 31 July 1919. p. 8. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Liners to be released". The Christian Science Monitor. 22 August 1919. p. 2.
- ^ Departure location, date: "WWI troopers Aeolus, Danube, Kroonland, 1917–1919 by J. McSherry". Preserved Memory Project. Maritime Matters. 1999. Archived from the original on 7 January 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2008. Composition of troops, return date, stowaway details: "Gilhooley here again" (PDF). The New York Times. 11 September 1919. p. 16. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Nixon (see subtitle of book).
- ^ United States Navy, Statistical Department (16 August 1919). "The Original U.S. Troop Transports". Archived from the original (image file) on 6 February 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Steamer St. Louis burns at Hoboken" (PDF). The New York Times. 9 January 1920. p. 22. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ Pier location: Brooklyn Daily Eagle, p. 94. Ships on the route, duration: Immigration Information Bureau, p. 206.
- ^ a b c "Kroonland, oil burner, lacks fuel to get in" (PDF). The New York Times. 31 December 1920. p. 8. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Kroonland, damaged, back" (PDF). The New York Times. 26 October 1921. p. 8. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Kroonland in hurricane" (PDF). The New York Times. 1 February 1922. p. 3. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Imperial and foreign news items". The Times. 15 November 1920. p. 11.
- ^ "Twins, boy and a girl, …". The Times. 28 March 1921. p. 4.
untitled news story
- ^ Date of arrival in New York: "Shipping and Mails" (PDF). The New York Times. 5 June 1922. p. 30. Retrieved 21 June 2008. All other details: "Mystery in death on ship" (PDF). The New York Times. 10 June 1922. p. 3. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Stood by Adriatic" (PDF). The New York Times. 14 August 1922. p. 4. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Adriatic safe here; think short circuit made gas explode" (PDF). The New York Times. 14 August 1922. pp. 1, 4. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "American ships win first step in fight to lift liquor ban" (PDF). The New York Times. 13 October 1922. p. 1. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "International Chamber of Commerce". The Times. 8 June 1920. p. 13.
- ^ "Four U.S. delegates home from Sweden" (PDF). The New York Times. 13 September 1921. p. 11. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Gold movements". The Wall Street Journal. 27 June 1921. p. 5.
- ^ "Kroonland brings huge cheese cargo" (PDF). The New York Times. 28 November 1922. p. 41. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ "Six more typhus cases in the city" (PDF). The New York Times. 7 March 1921. p. 1. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ a b "Service of fast liners for harbor". Los Angeles Times. 9 July 1923. p. I-8.
- ^ "Norwegian fjords attract tourists". The New York Times. 21 June 1923. p. 23.
- ^ "Two large ships will come here". Los Angeles Times. 30 April 1923. p. II-22. In June, Manchuria was also assigned to the route. See: "I.M.M. Panama-Pacific Line". The Wall Street Journal. 22 June 1923. p. 3.
- ^ "Relinks New York with the Pacific". Los Angeles Times. 3 November 1923. p. II-1.
- ^ a b "Kroonland is held back by gales at sea". Los Angeles Times. 21 December 1923. p. I-17.
- ^ "Storms delay liners". Los Angeles Times. 17 October 1924. p. A-20.
- ^ "Death victor in race with ship". Los Angeles Times. 20 October 1924. p. 15.
- ^ "Globe-circling vessel due at harbor today". Los Angeles Times. 15 December 1924. p. 17.
- ^ "Liner returns to Pacific". Los Angeles Times. 16 March 1925. p. 10.
- ^ a b "Kroonland sails with limit load". Los Angeles Times. 16 June 1925. p. 17.
- ^ "New liners for Panama Pacific". Los Angeles Times. 11 November 1924. p. A-22.
- ^ a b Cook, p. 80.
- ^ Stevens, p. xi.
- ^ Litz, pp. 150–51.
- ^ Richardson, p. 22.
- ^ "Two liners carry tourists abroad". The New York Times. 18 October 1923. p. 33.
- ^ "Sea route takes tourists to coast". The New York Times. 6 December 1923. p. 19.
- ^ "Liner carries notables". Los Angeles Times. 10 February 1924. p. C-12.
- ^ "New motorship departs today". Los Angeles Times. 25 January 1925. p. 14.
- ^ "Dr. von KleinSmid back". Los Angeles Times. 25 January 1925. p. 20.
- ^ "Kroonland will be put on New York – Miami route for weekly run this winter". The Wall Street Journal. 23 October 1925. p. 3.
- ^ "Miami ship service inaugurated today". The New York Times. 10 December 1925. p. 14.
- ^ a b "In the ship lanes". The Christian Science Monitor. 30 March 1926. p. 6.
- ^ a b c "Marine out of Miami business". The Wall Street Journal. 2 November 1926. p. 10.
- ^ South Florida Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved 21 June 2008.
- ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
- .
- ^ "Razing of Kroonland at Genoa ordered". The Washington Post. Associated Press. 30 January 1927. p. 16.
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External links
- Photo gallery of Kroonland at NavSource Naval History
- Photo gallery at Naval Historical Center
- Photos of Kroonland in the Pedro Miguel Locks of the Panama Canal, c. 1915
- A short video dedicated to the SS Kroonland
- Pages relating to Kroonland's rescue of survivors of the burning and sinking of SS Volturno from The burning of the 'Volturno':