Saṅkhāra
Translations of saṅkhāra | |
---|---|
English | formations volitional formations volitional activities |
Tibetan | འདུ་བྱེད་ ('du.byed) |
Tagalog | ᜐᜀᜈᜃᜑᜀᜎᜀ (sankhala) |
Thai | สังขาร (RTGS: sangkhan) |
Vietnamese | 行 (hành) |
Glossary of Buddhism |
Saṅkhāra (Pali; सङ्खार; Sanskrit: संस्कार or saṃskāra) is a term figuring prominently in Buddhism. The word means 'formations'[1] or 'that which has been put together' and 'that which puts together'.
In the first (passive) sense, saṅkhāra refers to conditioned phenomena generally but specifically to all mental "dispositions".[2] These are called 'volitional formations' both because they are formed as a result of volition and because they are causes for the arising of future volitional actions.[3] English translations for saṅkhāra in the first sense of the word include 'conditioned things,'[4] 'determinations,'[5] 'fabrications'[6] and 'formations' (or, particularly when referring to mental processes, 'volitional formations').[7]
In the second (active) sense of the word, saṅkhāra refers to karma (
According to the
Etymology and meaning
Saṅkhāra is a Pali word that is cognate with the Sanskrit word saṃskāra.
It is a complex concept, with no single-word English translation, that fuses "object and subject" as interdependent parts of each human's consciousness and epistemological process.[11] It connotes "impression, disposition, conditioning, forming, perfecting in one's mind, influencing one's sensory and conceptual faculty" as well as any "preparation, sacrament" that "impresses, disposes, influences or conditions" how one thinks, conceives or feels.[11][15][12]
Conditioned things
In the first (passive) sense, saṅkhāra refers to "conditioned things" or "dispositions, mental imprint".[15][11][16] All aggregates in the world – physical or mental concomitants, and all phenomena, state early Buddhist texts, are conditioned things.[11] It can refer to any compound form in the universe whether a tree, a cloud, a human being, a thought or a molecule. All these are saṅkhāras, as well as everything that is physical and visible in the phenomenal world are conditioned things, or aggregate of mental conditions.[11] The Buddha taught that all saṅkhāras are impermanent and essenceless.[17][18] These subjective dispositions, states David Kalupahana, "prevented the Buddha from attempting to formulate an ultimately objective view of the world".[15]
Since conditioned things and dispositions are perceptions and do not have real essence, they are not reliable sources of pleasure and they are impermanent.
The
Sankhara-khandha
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The Five Aggregates (pañca khandha) according to the Pali Canon. |
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Source: MN 109 (Thanissaro, 2001) | diagram details |
In the second (active) sense, saṅkhāra (or
The saṅkhāra-khandha states that living beings are reborn (
As the ignorance conditions the volitional formations, these formations condition, in turn, the consciousness (
'What one intends, what one arranges, and what one obsesses about: This is a support for the stationing of consciousness. There being a support, there is a landing [or: an establishing] of consciousness. When that consciousness lands and grows, there is the production of renewed becoming in the future. When there is the production of renewed becoming in the future, there is future birth, aging & death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, & despair. Such is the origination of this entire mass of suffering & stress.'[31]
Mental factors
Mental factors (Sanskrit: caitasika; Pali: cetasika; Tibetan Wylie: sems byung) are formations (Sanskrit: saṅkhāra) concurrent with mind (Sanskrit:
Nibbana
The Buddha emphasized the need to purify dispositions rather than eliminate them completely.[36]
Kalupahana states that "the elimination of dispositions is epistemological suicide," as dispositions determine our perspectives. The development of one's personality in the direction of perfection or imperfection rests with one's dispositions.[37]
When preliminary
English translations for the term Sankhara
- Activities (Ajahn Sucitto)
- Concoctions (Santikaro)[39]
- Conditions
- Conditioning Factors
- Conditioned things[40]
- Constructions (similar to the idea of Social Constructionism)
- Determinations[5][41]
- Fabrications[6]
- Formations (Bhikkhu Bodhi)[42]
- Karmic formations[43]
- Mental constructions
- Mental constructs (Bhante S. Dhammika)
- Preparations (Bhikkhu Katukurunde Ñāṇānanda)[44]
- Volitional activities[45]
- Volitional dispositions[46]
- Volitional formations (Bhikkhu Bodhi)
See also
- Sankhata
- Kleshas (Buddhism)
- Mental factors (Buddhism)
- Paticca-samuppada
- Samskara (Indian philosophy) – Hindu concept
- Skandha
References
- ^ a b Thich Nhat Hahn (2015). The Heart of Buddha's Teaching. New York: Harmony. pp. 73–74.
- ^ David Kalupahana, "A History of Buddhist Philosophy." University of Hawaii Press, 1992, page 71.
- ^ "The word saṅkhatam is explained in various ways. But in short it means something that is made up, prepared, or concocted by way of intention." Katukurunde Ñāṇānanda, in "The Mind Stilled: 33 Lectures on Nibbāna," p. 42, online at http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net.
- ^ See Piyadassi (1999). This is also suggested, for instance, by Bodhi (2000), p. 46, who in writing about one sense of saṅkhāra states: 'In the widest sense, saṅkhāra comprises all conditioned things, everything arisen from a combination of conditions.'
- ^ Majjhima Nikayamanuscripts that ultimately were edited by Bodhi. (In the published volume, Bodhi changed Ñāṇamoli's word choice to "formations.")
- ^ a b See, for instance, Thanissaro (1997b).
- ^ See the extended discussion at Bodhi (2000), pp. 44-47. Other translations considered by but ultimately rejected by Bodhi include 'constructions' (p. 45) and 'activities' (p. 45, especially to highlight the kammic aspect of saṅkhāra).
- ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1.
- ^ See, for instance, Bodhi (2000), p. 45:
- Saṅkhāra is derived from the prefix saṃ (=con), "together," and the verb karoti, "to make." The noun straddles both sides of the active-passive divide. Thus saṅkhāras are both things which put together, construct and compound other things, and the things that are put together, constructed, and compounded.
- ^ "51 Mental Formations". Plum Village. 2013-11-23. Retrieved 2019-06-30.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-208-1144-7.
- ^ a b Monier Monier-Williams (1872). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 1041.
- ISBN 978-0-231-14484-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-81-208-0412-8.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8248-1402-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7914-0500-0.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-8007-2.
- ISBN 978-0-521-33159-3.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-134-62324-2.
- ISBN 978-81-208-1051-8.
- ^ D.C. Wijeratna. "The First and Last Words of Lord Buddha". Academia.edu.
- ^ Sister Vajira & Francis Story. "Maha-parinibbana Sutta: Last Days of the Buddha (DN 16)". Access to Insight (BCBS Edition).
- ^ ISBN 978-0-86171-973-0.
- ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1.
- ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1.
- SN 12.2 (Thanissaro, 1997b), where the Buddha states: 'And what are fabrications? These three are fabrications: bodily fabrications, verbal fabrications, mental fabrications. These are called fabrications.'
- ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1.
- ISBN 978-0-88920-257-3.
- ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1.
- ISBN 978-1-134-42886-1.
- SN 12.38 (Thanissaro, 1995).
- ^ Guenther (1975), Kindle Location 321.
- ^ Kunsang (2004), p. 23.
- ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering (2006), Kindle Location 456.
- ^ Geshe Tashi Tsering (2006), Kindle Location 564-568.
- ^ David Kalupahana, Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna: The Philosophy of the Middle Way. Motilal Banarsidass, 2005, page 48.
- ^ David Kalupahana, "A History of Buddhist Philosophy." University of Hawaii Press, 1992, page 75.
- ^ a b Steven Collins, Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravada Buddhism. Cambridge University Press, 1982, page 207.
- ^ "Interview with Leigh Brasington, May 2004". www.leighb.com.
- ^ See Piyadassi (1999). This is also suggested, for instance, by Bodhi (2000), p. 46, who in writing about one sense of saṅkhāra states: "In the widest sense, saṅkhāra comprises all conditioned things, everything arisen from a combination of conditions."
- Nanavira Thera 'the word sankhāra, in all contexts, means 'something that something else depends on', that is to say a determination (determinant).' (Notes on Dhamma: Sankhāra)
- ^ See the extended discussion at Bodhi (2000), pp. 44-47. Other translations considered by but ultimately rejected by Bodhi include "constructions" (p. 45) and "activities" (p. 45, especially to highlight the karmic aspect of saṅkhāra).
- ^ Milinda's questions. Sacred books of the Buddhists. I.B. Horner (trans.). London: Luzac. 1963.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Ñāṇānanda, Katukurunde, 1988-1991, The Mind Stilled: 33 Lectures on Nibbāna, online at http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net. Bhikkhu Ñāṇānanda also notes, "in the ancient Indian society, one of the primary senses of the word saṅkhāra was the make-up done by actors and actresses" (http://www.seeingthroughthenet.net/files/eng/books/ms/nibbana_the_mind_stilled_I.pdf Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, p. 109).
- ^ Gethin, p. 136
- ^ Radhakrishnan and Moore (1957), p. 272.
Sources
- ISBN 0-86171-331-1.
- Geshe Tashi Tsering (2006). Buddhist Psychology: The Foundation of Buddhist Thought. Perseus Books Group. Kindle Edition.
- Guenther, Herbert V.& Leslie S. Kawamura (1975), Mind in Buddhist Psychology: A Translation of Ye-shes rgyal-mtshan's "The Necklace of Clear Understanding" Dharma Publishing. Kindle Edition.
- Kunsang, Erik Pema (translator) (2004). Gateway to Knowledge, Vol. 1. North Atlantic Books.
- AN 10.60). Retrieved 2007-11-18 from "Access to Insight" at Girimananda Sutta: Discourse to Girimananda Thera.
- Radhakrishnan, S. and Moore, C.A. (1957). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press.
- SN 12.38). Retrieved 2007-11-16 from "Access to Insight" at Cetana Sutta: Intention.
- Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997a). Avijja Sutta: Ignorance (SN 45.1). Retrieved 2007-11-16 from "Access to Insight" at Avijja Sutta: Ignorance.
- Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1997b). Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of Dependent Co-arising (SN 12.2). Retrieved 2007-11-16 from "Access to Insight" at Paticca-samuppada-vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of Dependent Co-arising.
- Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2001). Khajjaniya Sutta: Chewed Up (SN 22.79). Retrieved 2007-11-18 from "Access to Insight" at Khajjaniya Sutta: Chewed Up.