Sabancaya
Sabancaya | |
---|---|
Highest point | |
Elevation | 5,976 m (19,606 ft) [1] |
Prominence | ~500 m (1,640 ft) |
Coordinates | 15°47′13″S 71°51′25″W / 15.787°S 71.857°W[1][2] |
Geography | |
Location | Southern Central Volcanic Zone |
Last eruption | October 30 - November 5 2023 |
Sabancaya is an active 5,976-metre-high (19,606 ft)
Sabancaya has generated numerous long
Name
The name "Sabancaya" is Quechua and means tongue of fire[1] or spitting volcano, likely a reference to the eruptive activity.[3] Another version is Sahuancqueya.[4] The name is attested from 1595, implying that volcanic activity was observed since that date.[1]
Geography and geomorphology
Sabancaya lies about 70 km (43 mi) northwest of Arequipa.[5] The Rio Colca valley is located north of the Sabancaya-Hualca Hualca-Ampato volcano complex.[6]
Regional
The
Sabancaya is part of a series of volcanoes that line the southwestern coast of Peru at a distance of roughly 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the shore.
These volcanoes are found in places where
Local
Sabancaya is 5,960 metres (19,554 ft)
Sabancaya consists of two separate centres that are formed by neighbouring domes, Sabancaya I North and Sabancaya II South.
A set of over 42
Sabancaya, like its two neighbours, is covered by an
Earthquake activity has allowed the identification of a candidate magma reservoir beneath Pampa Sepina northeast of Sabancaya about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away from the summit. Between 1992 and 1996 this area inflated at a depth of 11–13 km (6.8–8.1 mi) below sea level, indicating that the magma supply system of Sabancaya may not be centered directly below the volcano.[40] Indeed, a phase of ground uplift at Hualca Hualca volcano and earthquake swarms in 1990 and later seismic activity under Hualca Hualca indicate that the magma chamber of Sabancaya is actually under the neighbouring volcano, a not uncommon phenomenon at volcanoes.[41][42]
Geology
The tectonic conditions in the region have not been constant over time; at various times the plates approached each other at higher speed, and this led to a compressional tectonic regimen. In the Western Cordillera however, tensional faulting facilitated the occurrence of voluminous volcanism. This faulting is still underway and produces earthquakes in the area.[12]
The basement of the volcano is formed by Precambrian rocks of the "Arequipa Massif", which are up to 1.9 billion years old. They are overlaid by various sediments and volcanic formations (Yura Group and Tiabaya unit) of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age. Especially during the Neogene, the supply of volcanic material was high and dominated the region, forming a volcanic "foot"; the present volcanoes are constructed on this volcanic "foot" formed by the Tacaza and Barroso sequences.[12][43] This "foot" is made out of an ignimbrite plateau that drops down south.[19] The "foot" beneath Ampato, Hualca Hualca and Sabancaya has been dated 2.2 ±0.15 million years ago, while a lava flow beneath the first and the last of these is about 0.8 ±0.04 million years old.[36]
Composition
Fresh volcanites of Sabancaya consist of
The magmas formed at temperatures of 920–990 °C (1,688–1,814 °F) with uncertainties of 30–50 °C (54–90 °F); the highest temperatures are associated with the 1992 eruption products.[45] Fluids from the downgoing slab chemically alter (metasomatism) the overlying mantle, which eventually melts to produce a primitive magma.[48] In various magma chambers,[49] magma genesis involved processes of magma mixing which formed at least part of the andesites[50] and fractional crystallization which gave rise to the dacites.[51] Partial crystallization and flow events within the magma chamber caused the formation of the andesite enclaves.[52] The total magma production rate of Sabancaya without accounting for repose periods is about 0.6–1.7 cubic kilometres per year (0.14–0.41 cu mi/a)[53] and is stored in a magma chamber under Hualca Hualca, 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) horizontal distance from Sabancaya, at 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) depth.[54]
Sabancaya is a source of
Eruptive history
Initially,
Sabancaya is the most active
After the large 1990 eruption, the style of activity at Sabancaya changed towards a frequent occurrence of explosive eruptions with however low output,[75] which threw ballistic blocks to distances of about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) from the summit crater;[10] this pattern of activity is referred to as "Vulcanian eruptions"[3] and was accompanied by a decrease of the magma supply.[76] Ash fall from these eruptions induced melting of the glaciers on Ampato, in 1995 exposing the Mummy Juanita on the latter volcano.[77] These explosive eruptions became less common over time (from paroxysms every 20–30 minutes to only 5–6 eruptions per day)[36] and the proportional amount of fresh volcanic material increased at first; since 1997 discontinuous eruptions generate steam columns no higher than 300–500 metres (980–1,640 ft)[36] and ejected material is almost entirely lithic.[47] Satellite imagery has evidenced the occurrence of temperature anomalies on Sabancaya on the scale of 13 K (23 °F), probably owing to fumarolic activity.[78]
In March and April 2013,
2, which was being emitted at a rate of 1,000 tonnes per day (0.012 t/s) in 2014.[72] Ash was emitted by the volcano multiple times through 2014 and 2015,[81] and there has been steady shallow seismic activity since 2013.[82]
A further increase of fumarolic activity was observed in 2016, when new fumaroles appeared and sulfur flux increased to 6,000 tonnes per day (0.069 t/s) sulfur dioxide. Ash eruptions have occurred since 6 November 2016, with an eruption column 3 km (1.9 mi) high five days later.[72] Since then, the volcano has been continuously active[83] with numerous explosions every day, which produce volcanic ash clouds that can rise to elevations of 3.5 km (2.2 mi).[84] A persistent gas plume lies above the volcano and repeated emissions of ash have happened, resulting in several alerts for the local population.[81] Lahars have been produced in some occasions, without reports of damage.[85] A lava dome began to grow in 2017 within the crater, with unsteady explosive activity and occasional seismic swarms,[86] and was progressively destroyed in 2020.[87] In 2020, a second lava dome formed in November[88] but it was destroyed between December and February of that year.[89] These lava domes were named after numbers in Quechua: Huk for the first and Iskay for the second.[90] The domes Kimsa formed in 2021 and was destroyed in the same year, while Tawa existed during the winter of 2021[91]-2022. In March and May of 2023, Pichqa formed.[92] Ash emissions and seismic activity[93] associated with the eruption begun in 2016 was still ongoing in 2023.[68]
Hazards
Sabancaya rises above the valleys of the Colca river and of some tributaries of the
The presence of an ice cap is an additional source of danger,
2 air pollution in the Colca valley, which can damage plants and cause respiratory distress in animals and humans.[103] Ash clouds from Sabancaya frequently impede air travel over the region; the volcano is one of the most frequent causes of volcanic ash-related air traffic advisories in the world.[104]
Monitoring
Sabancaya and Ubinas were the first Peruvian volcanoes to be studied scientifically.
Hazard maps and scenarios
INGEMMET has published three
Together with Ubinas, Coropuna and Misti, Sabancaya is classified by as a "very high risk" volcano;[117] in the case of Sabancaya because of its threat to the Majes-Siguas irrigation project.[118] Scenarios of future eruptions range from vulcanian eruptions over effusive eruptions (no evidence of effusive eruptions during the past few centuries) and vulcanian-subplinian eruptions to the low-probability scenario of Plinian eruptions.[119] Scenarios of mudflow emission range from mudflows in the valleys draining Ampato and Sabancaya over to flows that extend 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the volcano into surrounding towns.[120]
Climate and vegetation
In southern Peru, the wet season is during December-March, with the rest of the year dry. Annual precipitation east of the volcano is about 480–926 millimetres (18.9–36.5 in);[121] on average, about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) ice and snow accumulate on Sabancaya during the wet season.[32]
The landscape around Sabancaya, Ampato and Hualca Hualca is largely unvegetated.
Access and human use
Several paved roads pass along the foot of Ampato and Hualca Hualca,[124] including the department-level road PE-34E and the AR-579.[125] The principal economic activities in the area are agriculture, animal husbandry, mining and tourism.[126] The Colca valley is one of the principal tourism destinations of Peru,[4] with about 190,000 visitors per year.[126] It and Sabancaya have been evaluated for their potential as geotourism targets,[79] the UNESCO Colca y Volcanes de Andagua geopark includes Sabancaya.[127] Volcanic activity is visible from the Chivay-Arequipa road at Patapampa,[128] other viewpoints are at Mucurca northwest and Coporaque northeast of the volcano.[129]
See also
References
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- ^ a b c Gerbe & Thouret 2004, p. 541.
- ^ a b c Thouret et al. 1994, p. 51.
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