Sabbateans

Jewish mysticism
Forms Hasidic schools 1730s CE – today Academic study c. 1920s – today
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The Sabbateans (or Sabbatians) were a variety of Jewish followers, disciples, and believers in Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676),^[1][2][3] a

Vast numbers of Jews in the Jewish diaspora accepted his claims, even after he outwardly became an apostate due to his forced conversion to Islam in the same year.^[1][2][3] Sabbatai Zevi's followers, both during his proclaimed messiahship and after his forced conversion to Islam, are known as Sabbateans.^[1][3] Part of the Sabbateans lived on until well into 21st-century Turkey as descendants of the Dönmeh.^[1]

Sabbatai Zevi

Sabbatai Zevi was a

In February 1666, upon arriving in

Sabbatai's conversion to Islam was extremely disheartening for the world's Jewish communities. In addition to the misery and disappointment from within, Muslims and Christians jeered at and scorned the credulous and duped Jews.[9]

In spite of Sabbatai's apostasy, many of his adherents still tenaciously clung to him, claiming that his conversion was a part of the Messianic scheme.^[9] This belief was further upheld and strengthened by the likes of Nathan of Gaza and Samuel Primo, who were interested in maintaining the movement.^[10]

Many within Zevi's inner circle followed him into Islam, including his wife Sarah and most of his closest relatives and friends.^{[citation needed]} Nathan of Gaza, the scholar closest to Zevi, who had caused Zevi to reveal his Messiahship and in turn became his prophet, never followed his master into Islam but remained a Jew, albeit excommunicated by his Jewish brethren.^{[citation needed]}

After Sabbatai Zevi's apostasy, many Jews, although horrified, clung to the belief that Zevi could still be regarded as the true Jewish Messiah.^{[1][2][3][11]} They constituted the largest number of Sabbateans during the 17th and 18th centuries. By the 19th century, Jewish Sabbateans had been reduced to small groups of hidden followers who feared being discovered for their beliefs, that were deemed to be entirely heretical and antithetical to Rabbinic Judaism. These very Jews fell under the category of "sectarian" Sabbateans, which originated when many Sabbateans refused to accept that Zevi's feigned apostasy might have been indicative of the fact that their faith was genuinely an illusion.^[11]

Another large group of Sabbateans after Zevi's apostasy began to view Islam in an extremely negative light.^[12] Polemics against Islam erupted directly after Zevi's forced conversion. Some of these attacks were considered part of a largely anti-Sabbatean agenda.^[12] Accusations coming from anti-Sabbatean Jews revolved around the idea that Sabbatai Zevi's feigned conversion to Islam was rightfully an indicator of a false claim of Messianship.^[12]

Inside the Ottoman Empire, those followers of Zevi who had converted to Islam but who secretly continued Jewish observances and brit milah became known as the Dönmeh (Turkish: dönme "convert"). There were some internal sub-divisions within the sect, according to the geographical locations of the group, and according to who the leaders of these groups were after the death of Sabbatai Zevi.^[13]

Sabbatean-related controversies in Jewish history

The Emden-Eybeschutz controversy

The

The Emden-Eybeschutz controversy arose concerning the amulets which Emden suspected Eybeschutz of issuing. It was alleged that these amulets recognized the messianic claims of Sabbatai Zevi.^{[citation needed]} Emden then accused Eybeschutz of heresy. Emden was known for his attacks directed against the adherents, or those he supposed to be adherents, of Sabbatai Zevi. In Emden's eyes, Eybeschutz was a convicted Sabbatean.^{[citation needed]} The controversy lasted several years, continuing even after Eybeschutz's death.^{[citation needed]}

Emden's assertion of heresy was chiefly based on the interpretation of some amulets prepared by Eybeschutz, in which Emden professed to see Sabbatean allusions. Hostilities began before Eybeschutz left Prague; when Eybeschutz was named chief rabbi of the three communities of Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbek in 1751, the controversy reached the stage of intense and bitter antagonism. Emden maintained that he was at first prevented by threats from publishing anything against Eybeschutz. He solemnly declared in his synagogue the writer of the amulets to be a Sabbatean heretic and deserving of ḥerem (excommunication).^{[citation needed]}

The majority of the rabbis in Poland, Moravia, and Bohemia, as well as the leaders of the Three Communities, supported Eybeschutz:^{[citation needed]} the accusation was "utterly incredible".

In July 1725, the Ashkenazic beth din of Amsterdam had issued a ban of excommunication on the entire Sabbatian sect (kat ha-ma’aminim). Writings of Sabbatian nature found by the beit Din at that time were attributed to Eybeschutz.^[14] In early September, similar proclamations were issued by the batei din of Frankfurt and the triple community of Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbeck. The three bans were printed and circulated in other Jewish communities throughout Europe.^[15] Rabbi Ezekiel Katzenellenbogen, the chief rabbi of the Triple Community and Rabbi Moses Hagiz^[16] were unwilling to attack Eybeschütz publicly, mentioning that "greater than him have fallen and crumbled" and that "there is nothing we can do to him".^[16] However, Rabbi Katzenelenbogen stated that one of the texts found by the Amsterdam beit din Va'avo Hayom el Ha'Ayin "And I Came This Day into the Fountain" was authored by Jonathan Eybeschütz and declared that the all copies of the work that were in circulation should be immediately burned.^[17][18] Emden later suggested that the rabbis decided against attacking Eybeschutz out of a reluctance to offend his powerful family and a fear of rich supporters of his living in their communities.^[19] As a result of Eyberschutz and other rabbis in Prague formulating a new (and different) ban against Sabbatianism in September of that year his reputation was restored and Eybeschutz was regarded as having been totally vindicated.^[20] The issue was to arise again, albeit tangentially, in the 1751 dispute between Emden and Eyberschutz.

The controversy was a momentous incident in Jewish history of the period, involving both Yechezkel Landau and the Vilna Gaon, and may be credited with having crushed the lingering belief in Sabbatai current even in some Orthodox circles. In 1760 the quarrel broke out once more when some Sabbatean elements were discovered among the students of Eybeschutz' yeshiva. At the same time his younger son, Wolf, presented himself as a Sabbatean prophet, with the result that the yeshiva was closed.^{[citation needed]}

Sabbateans and early Hasidism

Some scholars see seeds of the Hasidic movement within the Sabbatean movement.^[21] When Hasidism began to spread its influence, a serious schism evolved between the Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. Those who rejected the Hasidic movement dubbed themselves as misnagdim ("opponents").

Critics of Hasidic Judaism^[

Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676) and Jacob Frank (1726–1791) in particular.

Sabbateans and modern secularism

Some scholars have noted that the Sabbatean movement in general fostered and connected well with the principles of modern secularism.^[22] Related to this is the drive of the Dönmeh in Turkey for secularizing their society just as European Jews promoted the values of Age of Enlightenment and its Jewish equivalent the haskalah.^{[citation needed]}

Rabbis who opposed the Sabbateans

• Joseph Escapa (1572–1662) was especially known for having been the teacher of Zevi and for having afterward excommunicated him.^[23]
• excommunicate Zevi. Zevi and his adherents retorted by deposing him and forcing him to leave the city, and his office was given to his colleague, Hayyim Benveniste, at that time one of Sabbatai's followers. After Sabbatai's conversion to Islam, Lapapa seems to have been reinstated.^{[citation needed}
  ]
• responsa
  which includes polemical correspondence against Zevi and his followers.
• Jacob Hagis (1620–1674) was one of Zevi's chief opponents, who put him under the ban. About 1673 Hagis went to Constantinople
  to publish his Lehem ha-Panim, but he died there before this was accomplished. This book, as well as many others of his, was lost.
• Breslau (where he acted as a rabbi until 1716), that Haham Tzvi Ashkenazi of Amsterdam
  informed him of its tenets. Cohen thereupon acted rigorously. He launched a ban against the author and his book, and became one of the most zealous supporters of Haham Tzvi in his campaign against Hayyun.
• David Nieto (1654–1728) was the haham of the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish community in London. He waged war untiringly on the Sabbateans, which he regarded as dangerous to the best interests of Judaism, and in this connection wrote his Esh Dat (London, 1715) against Nehemiah Hayyun (who supported Zevi).
• Tzvi Ashkenazi (1656–1718) known as the Chacham Tzvi, for some time rabbi of Amsterdam, was a resolute opponent of the followers of Sabbatai Zevi. In Salonica he also witnessed the impact of the Sabbatai Zevi movement on the community, and this experience became a determining factor in his whole career. His son Jacob Emden served as rabbi in Emden and followed in his father's footsteps in combating the Sabbatean movement.
• Sabbatean emissaries during 1725-1726.^{[citation needed}
  ]
• Jacob Emden (1697–1776) was Talmudic scholar and leading opponent of the Sabbatians. He is best known as the opponent of Rabbi Jonathan Eybeschutz, whom he accused of being a Sabbatean during The Emden-Eybeschütz Controversy.

See also

• Crypto-Judaism
• Frankism
• Islam and Judaism
• Jewish schisms
• Johan Kemper
• List of messiah claimants
• Messianism
• Behr Perlhefter
• Joshua Heschel Zoref

References

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Judaism - The Lurianic Kabbalah: Shabbetaianism".
   Catholic convert (in Bohemia-Moravia
   , however, the Frankists outwardly remained Jews). This crisis did not discredit Kabbalah, but it did lead Jewish spiritual authorities to monitor and severely curtail its spread and to use censorship and other acts of repression against anyone—even a person of tested piety and recognized knowledge—who was suspected of Shabbetaian sympathies or messianic pretensions.
2. ^
   self-indulgent behavior attracting and repelling rabbis and populace alike. He was expelled from Salonica by its rabbis for having staged a wedding service with himself as bridegroom and the Torah as bride. His erratic behavior continued. For long periods, he was a respected student and teacher of Kabbalah; at other times, he was given to messianic fantasies and bizarre acts. At one point, living in Jerusalem seeking "peace for his soul," he sought out a self-proclaimed "man of God," Nathan of Gaza
   , who declared Shabbetai Zvi to be the Messiah. Then Shabbetai Zvi began to act the part [...] On September 15, 1666, Shabbetai Zvi, brought before the sultan and given the choice of death or apostasy, prudently chose the latter, setting a turban on his head to signify his conversion to Islam, for which he was rewarded with the honorary title "Keeper of the Palace Gates" and a pension of 150 piasters a day. The apostasy shocked the Jewish world. Leaders and followers alike refused to believe it. Many continued to anticipate a second coming, and faith in false messiahs continued through the eighteenth century. In the vast majority of believers revulsion and remorse set in and there was an active endeavor to erase all evidence, even mention of the pseudo messiah. Pages were removed from communal registers, and documents were destroyed. Few copies of the books that celebrated Shabbetai Zvi survived, and those that did have become rarities much sought after by libraries and collectors.
3. ^
   Albania
   , where he died in loneliness and obscurity.
4. ^ Scholem, op. cit., p. 111, mentions, among other evidence of Sabbatai's early rabbinic training and semikhah by Rabbi Joseph Eskapha of his native town of Smyrna: "According to the testimony of Leib b. Ozer, the notary of the notary of the Ashkenazi community of Amsterdam ..., Sabbatai was eighteen years old when he was ordained a hakham." Scholem also writes, in the previous sentence: "Thomas Coenen, the Protestant minister serving the Dutch congregation in Smyrna, tells us ... that he received the title hakham, the Sephardi honorific for a rabbi, when still an adolescent."
5. ^ Wigoder, Geoffrey (1972). Jewish Art and Civilization. p. 44.
6. ^ Goldish, M. Jewish Questions: Responsa on Sephardic Life in the Early Modern Period, esp. p. Introduction XXXI, 2008 (The author describes him as a Romaniote Jew)
7. ^ Rifa N. Bali (2008), pp. 91-92
8. ^ Scholem, op cit., pp. 678–681; Scholem, Gershom. "Shabbetai Zevi." Encyclopaedia Judaica, pp. 348–350
9. ^ ^{a b} Scholem, Gershom (1973). Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah. Princeton University Press. pp. 821–828.
10. S2CID 162409618
    .
11. ^ ^{a b} Scholem, Gershom (1973). Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah. Princeton University Press. pp. 687–693.
12. ^
    S2CID 162896245
    .
13. ^ "A Strange Sect in Saloniki" (PDF). The New York Times. January 26, 1919.
14. ^ Emden, Beit Yehonatan ha-Sofer, fol. 4.
15. ^ Excerpts from the testimonies were printed by Emden in his Beit Yehonatan ha-Sofer, Altona 1762, fol. 4v; the full text of the testimonies, letters, and proclamations pertaining to the investigation can be found in [Josef Prager], Gahalei Esh, Oxford, Bodleian Library. Ms. 2186, Vol. I, fols. 70r -129
16. ^ ^{a b} Gahalei Esh, Vol. I, fol. 54
17. ^ Prager, Gahalei Esh, Vol. I, fol. 54v.
18. S2CID 161462387
    .
19. ^ Emden, Sefer Hitabbkut, fos. 1v-2r
20. ^ [Prager], Gahalei Esh, fol.112r
21. ^ "Post Sabbatian Sabbatianism". Bezalel Naor (Rav Kook on Sabbatianism). December 12, 2006. Archived from the original on December 5, 2006.
22. ^ "Sabbatean Messianism as Proto Secularism". M. Avrum Ehrlich. December 12, 2006. Archived from the original on January 14, 2007.
23. ISBN 9781480801554
    .

Further reading

Look up Sabbatianism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Cengiz Sisman, "The Burden of Silence: Sabbatai Sevi and the Evolution of the Ottoman-Turkish Donmes", New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.
• The Collection of the Words of the Lord, by Sabbatean leader Jacob Frank. Edited, translated, annotated and with an introduction by Harris Lenowitz.
• The Dönmes: Crypto-Jews under Turkish Rule Archived 2010-12-05 at the Wayback Machine
• The Donmeh: True Believers, Jewish Heretics or Untrustworthy Moslem Converts?
• Baer, Marc. (2007). "Globalization, Cosmopolitanism, and the Dönme in Ottoman Salonica and Turkish Istanbul". Journal of World History. 18 (2): 141–170.
  S2CID 143494298
  .
• A Messianic Epiphany: The Conversion of the Dönme Sabbateans
• Sisman, Cengiz (2007). "The History of Naming the Ottoman/Turkish Sabbatians". In Robert G. Ousterhout (ed.). Studies on Istanbul and Beyond. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
  ISBN 9781934536018
  .
• MacIejko, Pawel (2007). "The Jews' entry into public sphere: the Emden-Eibeschütz controversy reconsidered". Simon Dubnow Institute Yearbook. 6: 135–154.