Saka
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Followed by | Xiongnu, Kushan Empire, Gupta Empire |
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The Saka[a] were a group of nomadic Eastern Iranian peoples who historically inhabited the northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin.[7][8]
The Sakas were closely related to the
Prominent archaeological remains of the Sakas include
Name
Etymology
Linguist Oswald Szemerényi studied synonyms of various origins for Scythian and differentiated the following terms: Sakā 𐎿𐎣𐎠, Skuthēs Σκύθης, Skudra 𐎿𐎤𐎢𐎭𐎼, and Sugᵘda 𐎿𐎢𐎦𐎢𐎭.[25]
Derived from an Iranian verbal root sak-, "go, roam" (related to "seek") and thus meaning "nomad" was the term Sakā, from which came the names:
- Eurasian steppe, including the Pontic Scythians[26]
- Ancient Greek: Σάκαι Sákai
- Latin: Sacae
- Sanskrit: शक Śaka
- Old Chinese: 塞 Sək[27][28][29]
From the
- Akkadian: Iškuzaya and Askuzaya, used by the Assyrians
- Old Persian: 𐎿𐎤𐎢𐎭𐎼 Skudra
- Ancient Greek: Σκύθης Skúthēs (plural Σκύθαι Skúthai), used by the Ancient Greeks[30]
- The itacisticGreek
- The
A late Scythian sound change from /δ/ to /l/ resulted in the evolution of *Skuδa into *Skula. From this was derived the Greek word Skṓlotoi Σκώλοτοι, which, according to Herodotus, was the self-designation of the Royal Scythians.[31][32] Other sound changes have produced Sugᵘda 𐎿𐎢𐎦𐎢𐎭.[25]
Although the Scythians, Saka and Cimmerians were closely related nomadic Iranic peoples, and the ancient Babylonians, ancient Persians and ancient Greeks respectively used the names "Cimmerian," "Saka," and "Scythian" for all the steppe nomads, and early modern historians such as Edward Gibbon used the term Scythian to refer to a variety of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples across the Eurasian Steppe,
- the name "Scythian" in contemporary modern scholarship generally refers to the nomadic Iranic people who from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC dominated the steppe and forest-steppe zones to the north of the Black Sea, Crimea, the Kuban valley, as well as the Taman and Kerch peninsulas,[33][34]
- while the name "Saka" is used specifically for their eastern members who inhabited the northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin;[34][35]
Identification
The name Sakā was used by the ancient Persian to refer to all the Iranian nomadic tribes living to the north of their empire, including both those who lived between the Caspian Sea and the Hungry steppe, and those who lived to the north of the Danube and the Black Sea. The Assyrians meanwhile called these nomads the Ishkuzai (Akkadian: Iškuzaya[36][37]) or Askuzai (Akkadian: Asguzaya, mat Askuzaya, mat Ášguzaya[36][38]), and the Ancient Greeks called them Skuthai (Ancient Greek: Σκύθης Skúthēs, Σκύθοι Skúthoi, Σκύθαι Skúthai).[39]
The Achaemenid inscriptions initially listed a single group of Sakā. However, following Darius I's campaign of 520 to 518 BC against the Asian nomads, they were differentiated into two groups, both living in Central Asia to the east of the Caspian Sea:[39][41]
- the Sakā tigraxaudā (𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎡𐎥𐎼𐎧𐎢𐎭𐎠) – "Sakā who wear pointed caps," who were also known as the Massagetae.[42][43]
- the Sakā haumavargā (𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐏃𐎢𐎶𐎺𐎼𐎥𐎠) – interpreted as "Sakā who lay hauma (around the fire)",[44] which can be interpreted as "Saka who revere hauma."[45]
A third name was added after the Darius's campaign north of the Danube:[39]
- the Sakā tayaiy paradraya (𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎹𐎡𐎹 𐏐 𐎱𐎼𐎭𐎼𐎹) – "the Sakā who live beyond the (Black) Sea," who were the Pontic Scythians of the East European steppes
An additional term is found in two inscriptions elsewhere:[46][39]
- the Sakaibiš tayaiy para Sugdam (𐎿𐎣𐎡𐎲𐎡𐏁 𐏐 𐎫𐎹𐎡𐎹 𐏐 𐎱𐎼 𐏐 𐎿𐎢𐎥𐎭𐎶) – "Saka who are beyond Sogdia", a term was used by Darius for the people who formed the north-eastern limits of his empire at the opposite end to the satrapy of Kush (the Ethiopians).[47][48] These Sakaibiš tayaiy para Sugdam have been suggested to have been the same people as the Sakā haumavargā[49]
Moreover,
- the Sꜣg pḥ (𓐠𓎼𓄖𓈉) – "Sakā of the Marshes"
- the Sk tꜣ (𓋴𓎝𓎡𓇿𓈉) – "Sakā of the Land"
The scholar David Bivar had tentatively identified the Sk tꜣ with the Sakā haumavargā,[52] and John Manuel Cook had tentatively identified the Sꜣg pḥ with the Sakā tigraxaudā.[49] More recently, the scholar Rüdiger Schmitt has suggested that the Sꜣg pḥ and the Sk tꜣ might have collectively designated the Sakā tigraxaudā/Massagetae.[53]
The Achaemenid king Xerxes I listed the Saka coupled with the Dahā (𐎭𐏃𐎠) people of Central Asia,[47][49][46] who might possibly have been identical with the Sakā tigraxaudā.[54][55][56]
Modern terminology
Although the ancient Persians, ancient Greeks, and ancient Babylonians respectively used the names "Saka," "Scythian," and "
Location
matians
The Sakā tigraxaudā and Sakā haumavargā both lived in the steppe and highland areas located in northern Central Asia and to the east of the Caspian Sea.[39][41][60]
The Sakā tigraxaudā/Massagetae more specifically lived around
The Sakā haumavargā lived around the Pamir Mountains and the Ferghana Valley.[61]
The Sakaibiš tayaiy para Sugdam, who may have been identical with the Sakā haumavargā, lived on the north-east border of the Achaemenid Empire on the Iaxartes river.[39]
Some other Saka groups lived to the east of the Pamir Mountains and to the north of the Iaxartes river,[60] as well as in the regions corresponding to modern-day Qirghizia, Tian Shan, Altai, Tuva, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Kazakhstan.[61]
The Sək, that is the Saka who were in contact with the Chinese, inhabited the Ili and Chu valleys of modern Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, which was called the "land of the Sək", i.e. "land of the Saka", in the Book of Han.[63]
History
Origins
The Scythian/Saka cultures emerged on the Eurasian Steppe at the dawn of the Iron Age in the early 1st millennium BC. Their origins has long been a source of debate among archaeologists.[64] The Pontic–Caspian steppe was initially thought to have been their place of origin, until the Soviet archaeologist Aleksey Terenozhkin suggested a Central Asian origin.[65][66]
Archaeological evidence now tends to suggest that the origins of
The Sakas spoke a language belonging to the
Early history
The Saka are attested in historical and archaeological records dating to around the 8th century BC.[79]
The Saka tribe of the
During the 7th century BC itself, Saka presence started appearing in the Tarim Basin region.[79]
According to the ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, the Parthians rebelled against the Medes during the reign of Cyaxares, after which the Parthians put their country and capital city under the protection of the Sakas. This was followed by a long war opposing the Medes to the Saka, the latter of whom were led by the queen Zarinaea. At the end of this war, the Parthians accepted Median rule, and the Saka and the Medes made peace.[85][86][87]
According to the Greek historian Ctesias, once the Persian Achaemenid Empire's founder, Cyrus, had overthrown his grandfather the Median king Astyages, the Bactrians accepted him as the heir of Astyages and submitted to him, after which he founded the city of Cyropolis on the Iaxartes river as well as seven fortresses to protect the northern frontier of his empire against the Saka. Cyrus then attacked the Sakā haumavargā, initially defeated them and captured their king, Amorges. After this, Amorges's queen, Sparethra, defeated Cyrus with a large army of both men and women warriors and captured Parmises, the brother-in-law of Cyrus and the brother of his wife Amytis, as well as Parmises's three sons, whom Sparethra exchanged in return for her husband, after which Cyrus and Amorges became allies, and Amorges helped Cyrus conquer Lydia.[88][89][90][91][92][93]
Cyrus, accompanied by the Sakā haumavargā of his ally Amorges, later carried out a campaign against the Massagetae/Sakā tigraxaudā in 530 BC.[53] According to Herodotus, Cyrus captured a Massagetaean camp by ruse, after which the Massagetae queen Tomyris led the tribe's main force against the Persians, defeated them, and placed the severed head of Cyrus in a sack full of blood. Some versions of the records of the death of Cyrus named the Derbices, rather than the Massagetae, as the tribe against whom Cyrus died in battle, because the Derbices were a member tribe of the Massagetae confederation or identical with the whole of the Massagetae.[94][53] After Cyrus had been mortally wounded by the Derbices/Massagetae, Amorges and his Sakā haumavargā army helped the Persian soldiers defeat them. Cyrus told his sons to respect their own mother as well as Amorges above everyone else before dying.[93]
Possibly shortly before the 520s BC, the Saka expanded into the valleys of the Ili and Chu in eastern Central Asia.[63] Around 30 Saka tombs in the form of kurgans (burial mounds) have also been found in the Tian Shan area dated to between 550 and 250 BC.[79]
Darius I waged wars against the eastern Sakas during a campaign of 520 to 518 BC where, according to his inscription at Behistun, he conquered the Massagetae/Sakā tigraxaudā, captured their king Skunxa, and replaced him with a ruler who was loyal to Achaemenid rule.[53][93][95] The territories of the Saka were absorbed into the Achaemenid Empire as part of Chorasmia that included much of the territory between the Oxus and the Iaxartes rivers,[96] and the Saka then supplied the Achaemenid army with a large number of mounted bowmen.[97] According to Polyaenus, Darius fought against three armies led by three kings, respectively named Sacesphares, Amorges or Homarges, and Thamyris, with Polyaenus's account being based on accurate Persian historical records.[93][98][99] After Darius's administrative reforms of the Achaemenid Empire, the Sakā tigraxaudā were included within the same tax district as the Medes.[100]
During the period of Achaemenid rule, Central Asia was in contact with Saka populations who were themselves in contact with China.[101]
After Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire, the Saka resisted his incursions into Central Asia.[57]
At least by the late 2nd century BC, the Sakas had founded states in the Tarim Basin.[24]
Kingdoms in the Tarim Basin
Kingdom of Khotan
The
Archaeological evidence and documents from Khotan and other sites in the Tarim Basin provided information on the language spoken by the Saka.[104][105] The official language of Khotan was initially
The region once again came under Chinese suzerainty with the campaigns of conquest by Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649).[107] From the late eighth to ninth centuries, the region changed hands between the rival Tang and Tibetan Empires.[108][109] However, by the early 11th century the region fell to the Muslim Turkic peoples of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, which led to both the Turkification of the region as well as its conversion from Buddhism to Islam.
Later Khotanese-Saka-language documents, ranging from medical texts to
Although the ancient Chinese had called Khotan Yutian (于闐), another more native Iranian name occasionally used was Jusadanna (瞿薩旦那), derived from Indo-Iranian Gostan and Gostana, the names of the town and region around it, respectively.[111]
Shule Kingdom
Much like the neighboring people of the Kingdom of Khotan, the people of
Southern migrations
The Saka were pushed out of the Ili and Chu River valleys by the Yuezhi.[120][21][22] An account of the movement of these people is given in Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian. The Yuehzhi, who originally lived between Tängri Tagh (Tian Shan) and Dunhuang of Gansu, China,[121] were assaulted and forced to flee from the Hexi Corridor of Gansu by the forces of the Xiongnu ruler Modu Chanyu, who conquered the area in 177–176 BC.[122][123][124][125][126][127] In turn the Yuehzhi were responsible for attacking and pushing the Sai (i.e. Saka) west into Sogdiana, where, between 140 and 130 BC, the latter crossed the Syr Darya into Bactria. The Saka also moved southwards toward the Pamirs and northern India, where they settled in Kashmir, and eastward, to settle in some of the oasis-states of Tarim Basin sites, like Yanqi (焉耆, Karasahr) and Qiuci (龜茲, Kucha).[128][129] The Yuehzhi, themselves under attacks from another nomadic tribe, the Wusun, in 133–132 BC, moved, again, from the Ili and Chu valleys, and occupied the country of Daxia, (大夏, "Bactria").[63][130]
The ancient Greco-Roman geographer Strabo noted that the four tribes that took down the Bactrians in the Greek and Roman account – the Asioi, Pasianoi, Tokharoi and Sakaraulai – came from land north of the Syr Darya where the Ili and Chu valleys are located.[131][63] Identification of these four tribes varies, but Sakaraulai may indicate an ancient Saka tribe, the Tokharoi is possibly the Yuezhi, and while the Asioi had been proposed to be groups such as the Wusun or Alans.[131][132]
The
Indo-Scythians
The region in modern Afghanistan and Iran where the Saka moved to became known as "land of the Saka" or
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The Indo-Scythians ruled in northwestern South Asia from circa 100 BC
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The Northern Satraps ruled in northern India until their replacement by the Kushans circa 150 AD
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The Western Satraps was a Saka dynasty which ruled in western India until circa 400 AD
Historiography
The Sacae, or Scyths, were clad in trousers, and had on their heads tall stiff caps rising to a point. They bore the bow of their country and the dagger; besides which they carried the battle-axe, or sagaris. They were in truth Amyrgian (Western) Scythians, but the Persians called them Sacae, since that is the name which they gave to all Scythians.
Strabo
In the 1st century BC, the Greek-Roman geographer Strabo gave an extensive description of the peoples of the eastern steppe, whom he located in Central Asia beyond Bactria and Sogdiana.[147]
Strabo went on to list the names of the various tribes he believed to be "Scythian",[147] and in so doing almost certainly conflated them with unrelated tribes of eastern Central Asia. These tribes included the Saka.
Now the greater part of the Scythians, beginning at the Caspian Sea, are called
Aria. Between them and Hyrcania and Parthia and extending as far as the Arians is a great waterless desert, which they traversed by long marches and then overran Hyrcania, Nesaea, and the plains of the Parthians. And these people agreed to pay tribute, and the tribute was to allow the invaders at certain appointed times to overrun the country and carry off booty. But when the invaders overran their country more than the agreement allowed, war ensued, and in turn their quarrels were composed and new wars were begun. Such is the life of the other nomads also, who are always attacking their neighbors and then in turn settling their differences.
- (Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1; transl. 1903 by H. C. Hamilton & W. Falconer.)[147]
Indian sources
The Sakas receive numerous mentions in Indian texts, including the
Language
Modern scholarly consensus is that the
Attestations of the Saka language show that it was an Eastern Iranian language. The linguistic heartland of Saka was the Kingdom of Khotan, which had two varieties, corresponding to the major settlements at Khotan (now called Hotan) and Tumshuq (now titled Tumxuk).[150][151] Tumshuqese and Khotanese varieties of Saka contain many borrowings from the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, but also share features with the modern Eastern Iranian languages Wakhi and Pashto.[152]
The Issyk inscription, a short fragment on a silver cup found in the Issyk kurgan in Kazakhstan is believed to be the earliest example of Saka, constituting one of very few autochthonous epigraphic traces of that language.[153] The inscription is in a variant of Kharosthi. Harmatta suggests that the inscriptions are a variant of the Kharosthi language, while Christopher Baumer has said that they closely resemble the Old Turkic runic alphabet. From Khotanese Saka, Harmatta translates the inscription as: "The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal, then added cooked fresh butter on".[154]
Genetics
The earliest studies could only analyze segments of mtDNA, thus providing only broad correlations of affinity to modern West Eurasian or East Eurasian populations. For example, in a 2002 study the mitochondrial DNA of Saka period male and female skeletal remains from a double inhumation kurgan at the Beral site in Kazakhstan was analysed. The two individuals were found to be not closely related. The HV1 mitochondrial sequence of the male was similar to the Anderson sequence which is most frequent in European populations. The HV1 sequence of the female suggested a greater likelihood of Asian origins.[160]
More recent studies have been able to type for specific mtDNA lineages. For example, a 2004 study examined the HV1 sequence obtained from a male "Scytho-Siberian" at the Kizil site in the Altai Republic. It belonged to the N1a maternal lineage, a geographically West Eurasian lineage.[161] Another study by the same team, again of mtDNA from two Scytho-Siberian skeletons found in the Altai Republic, showed that they had been typical males "of mixed Euro-Mongoloid origin". One of the individuals was found to carry the F2a maternal lineage, and the other the D lineage, both of which are characteristic of East Eurasian populations.[162]
These early studies have been elaborated by an increasing number of studies by Russian and western scholars. Conclusions are (i) an early, Bronze Age mixing of both west and east Eurasian lineages, with western lineages being found far to the east, but not vice versa; (ii) an apparent reversal by Iron Age times, with an increasing presence of East Eurasian
Unterländer, et al. (2017) found genetic evidence that the modern-day descendants of Eastern Scythians are found "almost exclusively" among modern-day Siberian Turkic speakers, suggesting that future studies could determine the extent to which the Eastern Scythians were involved in the early formation of Turkic-speaking populations.[166]
Haplogroups
Ancient Y-DNA data was finally provided by Keyser et al in 2009. They studied the haplotypes and haplogroups of 26 ancient human specimens from the
A genetic study published in
The samples of
According to Tikhonov, et al. (2019), the Eastern Scythians and the Xiongnu "possibly bore proto-Turkic elements", based on a continuation of maternal and paternal haplogroups.[169]
Autosomal DNA
The 2018 in study detected significant genetic differences between analyzed Inner Asian Saka-associated samples and Scythian samples of the
A later different Eastern influx is evident in three outlier samples of the
The most closely related modern population to the Saka (and other Scythian groups) are the Tajiks, an Iranian peoples indigenous to Southern Central Asia, which display genetic continuity to Bronze and Iron age Central Asians. These genetic links are paralleled by previous proposed "linguistic and physical anthropological links between the Tajiks and Scythians".[179] There is also increasing evidence for genetic affinities between the Eastern Scythians (such as the Pazyryk culture) and Turkic-speaking groups,[180] which formed via admixture events during the Iron Age between local Saka groups and geneflow from the Eastern Steppe,[181] but also Uralic and Paleo-Siberian peoples.[182] The admixture with West Eurasian sources was found to be "in accordance with the linguistically documented language borrowing in Turkic languages".[183]
East-West migrations and cultural transmission
Genetic data across Eurasia suggest that the Scythian cultural phenomenon was accompanied by some degree of migration from east to west, starting in the area of the Altai region.[184] In particular, the Classical Scythians of the western Eurasian steppe were not direct descendants of the local Bronze Age populations, but partly resulted from this east-west spread.[184] This also suggests that Scythoïd cultural characteristics were not simply the result of the transfer of material culture, but were also accompanied by human migrations of Saka populations from the east.[184]
The region between the
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Warriors with daggers and bows. Dagger blade decoration from Kurgan 4, Burial 2,Sarmatian, 5th-4th century BCE.[186]
Archaeology
Saka kurgans[189] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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The spectacular grave-goods from
Arzhan 1 kurgan (c. 800 BC)
Arzhan-1 was excavated by M. P. Gryaznov in the 1970s, establishing the origins of Scythian culture in the region in the 10th to 8th centuries BC:[192] Arzhan-1 was carbon-dated to circa 800 BC.[193] Many of the styles of the artifacts found in Arzhan 1 (such as the animal style images of deer, boar, and panther) soon propagated to the west, probably following a migration mouvement from the east to the west in the 9th-7th centuries BC, and ultimately reaching European Scythia and influencing artistic styles there.[194]
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Arzhan-1, dated to circa 800 BC, partly looted in Antiquity
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Curled-up feline animal from Arzhan-1, circa 800 BC.[195]
Shilikty/ Baigetobe kurgan (c. 700 BC)
Shilikty is an archaeological site in eastern
The Kurgans contained vast quantities of precious golden jewelry.[198] Remains of a "golden man" (similar to the Issyk kurgan golden man) were found in 2003, with 4262 gold finds.[199]
Arzhan 2 (c. 650 BC)
Arzhan-2 was an undisturbed burial.[201] Archaeologists found a royal couple, sixteen murdered attendants, and 9,300 objects.[201] 5,700 of these artifacts were made of gold, weighing a Siberian record-breaking twenty kilograms.[201] The male, who researchers guess was some sort of king, wore a golden torc, a jacket decorated with 2,500 golden panther figurines, a gold-encrusted dagger on a belt, trousers sewn with golden beads, and gold-cuffed boots.[201] The woman wore a red cloak that was also covered in 2,500 golden panther figurines, as well as a golden-hilted iron dagger, a gold comb, and a wooden ladle with a golden handle.[201]
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"Animal style" deer, (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
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Pectoral plate, from burial mound Arzhan (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
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Akinak (dagger) burial mound Arzhan (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
Eleke Sazy Burial Complex (c. 800-400 BC)
In 2020, archaeologists excavated multiple burial mounds in the Eleke Sazy Valley in East Kazakhstan. Here, a large number of gold artifacts were found. These artifacts included golf harness fittings, pendants, chains, appliqués, and more – most of which are in the Animal Style of the Scythian-Saka era dating back to the 5th–4th centuries BC.[202]
Berel burial mound (c. 350-300 BC)
Near the selo of Berel in the Katonkaragay District of eastern Kazakhstan (49°22′24″N 86°26′17″E / 49.3732082°N 86.4380264°E[203]) excavations of ancient burial mounds have revealed artefacts the sophistication of which are encouraging a revaluation of the nomadic cultures of the 3rd and 4th centuries BC.[204]
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Catlike predator with protomas of two elk, burial moundBerel(4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan, Pazyryk culture.
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Deer in Griffin's beak, burial mound Berel (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
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Tigergriffin arthor work based on Scytian- saka animal style, burial mound Berel (5th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
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Griffins, burial mound Berel (5th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
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Frontal decoration (harness), burial mound Berel (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan, Pazyryk culture.
Pazyryk culture (c. 300 BC)
Saka burials documented by modern archaeologists include the kurgans at Pazyryk in the Ulagan (Red) district of the Altai Republic, south of Novosibirsk in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia (near Mongolia). Archaeologists have extrapolated the Pazyryk culture from these finds: five large burial mounds and several smaller ones between 1925 and 1949, one opened in 1947 by Russian archaeologist Sergei Rudenko. The burial mounds concealed chambers of larch-logs covered over with large cairns of boulders and stones.[206]
The Pazyryk culture flourished between the 7th and 3rd century BC in the area associated with the
Ordinary Pazyryk graves contain only common utensils, but in one, among other treasures, archaeologists found the famous Pazyryk Carpet, the oldest surviving wool-pile oriental rug. Another striking find, a 3-metre-high four-wheel funerary chariot, survived well-preserved from the 5th to 4th century BC.[207]
Southern Siberian kurgans excavated in the 18th century
During the 18th century and the Rusian expansion into Siberia, many Saka kurgans were plundered, sometimes by independent grave-robbers or sometimes officially at the instigation of
Many of these artifacts were part of the archaeological presents sent by
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Aigrette, 4th-3rd century BC. Siberian Collection of Peter the Great.[212]
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Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum), 2nd-1st century BC.[213]
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Belt plaque from the Siberian collection of Peter the Great, probably Ingala Valley
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Siberian gold, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great
Tillia Tepe treasure (2nd-1st century BC)
A site found in 1968 in
A high degree of cultural
Culture
Gender roles
Recently, evidence confirmed by the full-genomic analysis of a Scythian child's remains found in a coffin made of a larch trunk, which was discovered in Saryg-Bulun in Central Tuva, revealed that the individual, previously thought to be male because it had items that were associated with the belief that Scythian society was male-dominated, was actually female. Along with the leather skirt, the burial also contained a leather headdress painted with red pigment, a coat sewn from jerboa fur, a leather belt with bronze ornaments and buckles, a leather quiver with arrows with painted ornaments on the shafts, a fully-preserved battle pick, and a bow. These items provide valuable insights into the material culture and lifestyle of the Scythians, including their hunting and warfare practices, and their use of animal hides for clothing.[215]
Art
The art of the Saka was of a similar styles as other Iranian peoples of the steppes, which is referred to collectively as
Ancient influences from Central Asia became identifiable in China following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western and northwestern border territories from the 8th century BC. The Chinese adopted the Scythian-style animal art of the
Following their expulsion by the
Saka influences have been identified as far as Korea and Japan. Various Korean artifacts, such as the royal crowns of the kingdom of
Clothing
Similar to other
Men and women wore long trousers, often adorned with metal plaques and often embroidered or adorned with felt appliqués; trousers could have been wider or tight fitting depending on the area. Materials used depended on the wealth, climate and necessity.[225]
Herodotus says Sakas had "high caps tapering to a point and stiffly upright." Asian Saka headgear is clearly visible on the Persepolis Apadana staircase bas-relief – high pointed hat with flaps over ears and the nape of the neck.[226] From China to the Danube delta, men seemed to have worn a variety of soft headgear – either conical like the one described by Herodotus, or rounder, more like a Phrygian cap.
Saka women dressed in much the same fashion as men. A Pazyryk burial, discovered in the 1990s, contained the skeletons of a man and a woman, each with weapons, arrowheads, and an axe. Herodotus mentioned that Sakas had "high caps and … wore trousers." Clothing was sewn from plain-weave wool, hemp cloth, silk fabrics, felt, leather and hides.
Pazyryk findings give the most almost fully preserved garments and clothing worn by the Scythian/Saka peoples. Ancient Persian bas-reliefs, inscriptions from
Based on the Pazyryk findings (can be seen also in the south Siberian, Uralic and Kazakhstan rock drawings) some caps were topped with zoomorphic wooden sculptures firmly attached to a cap and forming an integral part of the headgear, similar to the surviving nomad helmets from northern China. Men and warrior women wore tunics, often embroidered, adorned with felt applique work, or metal (golden) plaques.
Persepolis Apadana again serves a good starting point to observe the tunics of the Sakas. They appear to be a sewn, long-sleeved garment that extended to the knees and was girded with a belt, while the owner's weapons were fastened to the belt (sword or dagger, gorytos, battle-axe, whetstone etc.). Based on numerous archeological findings, men and warrior women wore long-sleeved tunics that were always belted, often with richly ornamented belts. The Kazakhstan Saka (e.g. Issyk Golden Man/Maiden) wore shorter and closer-fitting tunics than the Pontic steppe Scythians. Some Pazyryk culture Saka wore short belted tunic with a lapel on the right side, with upright collar, 'puffed' sleeves narrowing at the wrist and bound in narrow cuffs of a color different from the rest of the tunic.
Men and women wore coats: e.g. Pazyryk Saka had many varieties, from fur to felt. They could have worn a riding coat that later was known as a Median robe or Kantus. Long sleeved, and open, it seems that on the Persepolis Apadana Skudrian delegation is perhaps shown wearing such coat. The Pazyryk felt tapestry shows a rider wearing a billowing cloak.
Tattoos
Men and women are known to have been extensively tattooed. The men in the Pazyryk burials had extensive tattoos in the Siberian animal style.[230] A Pazyryk chief in burial mound 2, had his body covered in animal style tattoos, but not his face.[231] Parts of the body had deteriorated, but much of the tattooing was still clearly visible (see image). Subsequent investigation using reflected infrared photography revealed that all five bodies discovered in the Pazyryk kurgans were tattooed.[232] No instruments specifically designed for tattooing were found, but the Pazyryks had extremely fine needles with which they did miniature embroidery, and these were probably used for tattooing. The chief was elaborately decorated with an interlocking series of striking designs representing a variety of fantastic beasts. The best preserved tattoos were images of a donkey, a mountain ram, two highly stylized deer with long antlers and an imaginary carnivore on the right arm. Two monsters resembling griffins decorate the chest, and on the left arm are three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat. On the front of the right leg a fish extends from the foot to the knee. A monster crawls over the right foot, and on the inside of the shin is a series of four running rams which touch each other to form a single design. The left leg also bears tattoos, but these designs could not be clearly distinguished. In addition, the chief's back was tattooed with a series of small circles in line with the vertebral column.[233] The Siberian Ice Maiden is also known for her extensive tattoos.[234]
-
Tattoos of the Pazyryk-2 chief.[235]
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Tattoos of the chief's right arm, with zoomorphic symbols.[234]
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Tattoos of the chief's back and left arm.[234]
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Tattoo motif on the arm of the Siberian Ice Maiden.[234]
Warfare
A skull from an Iron Age cemetery in
Later depictions of "Sakas" in China (1st-3rd century AD)
Numerous depictions of foreigners of Saka appearance appear in China around the
-
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Eastern Han tombs sometimes have depiction of battles between Hu barbarians, with bows and arrows and wearing pointed hats (left), against Han troops. Eastern Han Dynasty (151–153 AD). Tsangshan Han tomb in Linyi city. Also visible in Yinan tombs.[239]
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General appearance of the numerousEastern Han period.[238]
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Yinan tombs relief, depicting an attack by Hu barbarians with pointed hats, bow and arrows. 2nd century AD, Eastern Han.[240]
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Man hunting, circa 500 BC,Gansu Museum.[242]
See also
Part of a series on |
Indo-European topics |
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- Besshatyr Burial Ground
- History of the central steppe
- Sakas in the Mahabharata
- Sakzai
- Shaka era
- Sagetae
- Maga Brahmin
- Scytho-Siberian world
References
Citations
- ^ Davis-Kimball, Jeannine; Bashilov, V. A.; I︠A︡blonskiĭ, Leonid Teodorovich (1995). Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age (PDF). Zinat Press. p. IX, Map 1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-521921-0.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-8382-1518-1.
- ISBN 978-0-7607-0687-9.
- ISBN 978-1-351-70158-7.
- ISBN 978-90-04-11499-9.
Fig. 5.70d Gold mail suit, crown and leg covers, from an Issik tomb, period of the Saka tribes, 5th to 4th century B.C., Institute of Archaeology, History and Ethnography, Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan (after Shiruku rodo no yuihO, pl. 18)
- ^ a b Beckwith 2009, p. 68 "Modern scholars have mostly used the name Saka to refer specifically to Iranians of the Eastern Steppe and Tarim Basin"
- ^ a b c d Dandamayev 1994, p. 37 "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."
- ^ Unterländer et al. 2017: "During the first millennium BC, nomadic people spread over the Eurasian Steppe from the Altai Mountains over the northern Black Sea area as far as the Carpathian Basin... Greek and Persian historians of the 1st millennium BCE chronicle the existence of the Massagetae and Sauromatians, and later, the Sarmatians and Sacae: cultures possessing artefacts similar to those found in classical Scythian monuments, such as weapons, horse harnesses and a distinctive 'Animal Style' artistic tradition. Accordingly, these groups are often assigned to the Scythian culture..."
- PMID 33771866.
- ^ S2CID 247855352.
Of these, the Sakas were the descendants of Late Bronze Age (LBA) herders (such as the Andronovo, Srubnaya, and Sintashta) with additional ancestries derived from Lake Baikal (Shamanka_EBA) (EBA, Early Bronze Age) and BMAC populations (1, 17, 18). Sakas have been associated with the Indo-Iranian Khotanese language, which was spoken in southern Xinjiang before spreading to other parts of the region (19).
- Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
The Śaka tribe was pasturing its herds in the Pamirs, central Tien Shan, and in the Amu Darya delta. Their gold belt buckles, jewelry, and harness decorations display sheep, griffins, and other animal designs that are similar in style to those used by the Scythians, a nomadic people living in the Kuban basin of the Caucasus region and the western section of the Eurasian plain during the greater part of the 1st millennium bc.
- ^ David & McNiven 2018: "Horse-riding nomadism has been referred to as the culture of 'Early Nomads'. This term encompasses different ethnic groups (such as Scythians, Saka, Massagetae, and Yuezhi)..."
- ^ a b Diakonoff 1985: the Persians called "Saka" all the northern nomads, just as the Greeks called them "Scythians", and the Babylonians "Cimmerians".
- ^ a b Tokhtas’ev, Sergei R. (1991). "Cimmerians". Encyclopædia Iranica.
As the Cimmerians cannot be differentiated archeologically from the Scythians, it is possible to speculate about their Iranian origins. In the Neo-Babylonian texts (according to D'yakonov, including at least some of the Assyrian texts in Babylonian dialect) Gimirri and similar forms designate the Scythians and Central Asian Saka, reflecting the perception among inhabitants of Mesopotamia that Cimmerians and Scythians represented a single cultural and economic group
- ISSN 0033-8222.
- S2CID 135231553.
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- S2CID 220661798.
- S2CID 80362028.
- ^ a b Benjamin, Craig (March 2003). "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia". Ērān ud Anērān Webfestschrift Marshak. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
- ^ a b "Chinese History – Sai 塞 The Saka People or Soghdians". Chinaknowledge. Archived from the original on 19 January 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
- ^ a b Beckwith 2009, p. 85 "The Saka, or Śaka, people then began their long migration that ended with their conquest of northern India, where they are also known as the Indo-Scythians."
- ^ a b Sinor 1990, pp. 173–174
- ^ ISBN 0-520-06864-5.
- ISBN 978-90-04-21758-4.
- ISBN 978-8120815407.
- ISBN 978-0-521-11873-6.
- ^ Callieri, Pierfrancesco (2016). "SAKAS: IN AFGHANISTAN". Encyclopædia Iranica.
The ethnonym Saka appears in ancient Iranian and Indian sources as the name of the large family of Iranian nomads called Scythians by the Classical Western sources and Sai by the Chinese (Gk. Sacae; OPers. Sakā).
- ISBN 978-1-885979-00-1.
- ^ Ivantchik, Askold (25 April 2018). "SCYTHIANS". Encyclopædia Iranica.
- ^ K. E. Eduljee. "Histories by Herodotus, Book 4 Melpomene [4.6]". Zoroastrian Heritage. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
- ISBN 978-90-04-09856-5.
- ^ a b * Dandamayev 1994, p. 37: "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Central Asia and Eastern Turkestan to distinguish them from the related Massagetae of the Aral region and the Scythians of the Pontic steppes. These tribes spoke Iranian languages, and their chief occupation was nomadic pastoralism."
- Cernenko 2012, p. 3: "The Scythians lived in the Early Iron Age, and inhabited the northern areas of the Black Sea (Pontic) steppes. Though the 'Scythian period' in the history of Eastern Europe lasted little more than 400 years, from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC, the impression these horsemen made upon the history of their times was such that a thousand years after they had ceased to exist as a sovereign people, their heartland and the territories which they dominated far beyond it continued to be known as 'greater Scythia'."
- Melyukova 1990, pp. 97–98: "From the end of the 7th century B.C. to the 4th century B.C. the Central- Eurasian steppes were inhabited by two large groups of kin Iranian-speaking tribes – the Scythians and Sarmatians [...] "[I]t may be confidently stated that from the end of the 7th century to the 3rd century B.C. the Scythians occupied the steppe expanses of the north Black Sea area, from the Don in the east to the Danube in the West."
- Ivantchik 2018: "Scythians, a nomadic people of Iranian origin who flourished in the steppe lands north of the Black Sea during the 7th–4th centuries BC (Figure 1). For related groups in Central Asia and India, see [...]"
- Sulimirski 1985, pp. 149–153: "During the first half of the first millennium B.C., c. 3,000 to 2,500 years ago, the southern part of Eastern Europe was occupied mainly by peoples of Iranian stock [...] The main Iranian-speaking peoples of the region at that period were the Scyths and the Sarmatians [...] [T]he population of ancient Scythia was far from being homogeneous, nor were the Scyths themselves a homogeneous people. The country called after them was ruled by their principal tribe, the "Royal Scyths" (Her. iv. 20), who were of Iranian stock and called themselves "Skolotoi" (iv. 6); they were nomads who lived in the steppe east of the Dnieper up to the Don, and in the Crimean steppe [...] The eastern neighbours of the "Royal Scyths," the Sauromatians, were also Iranian; their country extended over the steppe east of the Don and the Volga."
- Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, p. 547: "The name 'Scythian' is met in the classical authors and has been taken to refer to an ethnic group or people, also mentioned in Near Eastern texts, who inhabited the northern Black Sea region."
- West 2002, pp. 437–440: "Ordinary Greek (and later Latin) usage could designate as Scythian any northern barbarian from the general area of the Eurasian steppe, the virtually treeless corridor of drought-resistant perennial grassland extending from the Danube to Manchuria. Herodotus seeks greater precision, and this essay is focussed on his Scythians, who belong to the North Pontic steppe [...] These true Scyths seems to be those whom he calls Royal Scyths, that is, the group who claimed hegemony [...] apparently warrior-pastoralists. It is generally agreed, from what we know of their names, that these were people of Iranian stock [...]"
- Jacobson 1995, pp. 36–37: "When we speak of Scythians, we refer to those Scytho-Siberians who inhabited the Kuban Valley, the Taman and Kerch peninsulas, Crimea, the northern and northeastern littoral of the Black Sea, and the steppe and lower forest steppe regions now shared between Ukraine and Russia, from the seventh century down to the first century B.C [...] They almost certainly spoke an Iranian language [...]"
- Di Cosmo 1999, p. 924: "The first historical steppe nomads, the Scythians, inhabited the steppe north of the Black Sea from about the eight century B.C."
- Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
[Saka] gold belt buckles, jewelry, and harness decorations display sheep, griffins, and other animal designs that are similar in style to those used by the Scythians, a nomadic people living in the Kuban basin of the Caucasus region and the western section of the Eurasian plain during the greater part of the 1st millennium bc.
- Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 1 September 2018.
The Śaka tribe was pasturing its herds in the Pamirs, central Tien Shan, and in the Amu Darya delta. Their gold belt buckles, jewelry, and harness decorations display sheep, griffins, and other animal designs that are similar in style to those used by the Scythians, a nomadic people living in the Kuban basin of the Caucasus region and the western section of the Eurasian plain during the greater part of the 1st millennium bc.
- ^ a b Parpola, Simo (1970). Neo-Assyrian Toponyms. Kevaeler: Butzon & Bercker. p. 178.
- ^ "Iškuzaya [SCYTHIAN] (EN)". oracc.museum.upenn.edu.
- ^ "Asguzayu [SCYTHIAN] (EN)". oracc.museum.upenn.edu.
- ^ a b c d e f Cook 1985, p. 252-255.
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (2003). "HAUMAVARGĀ". Encyclopædia Iranica.
- ^ a b Dandamayev 1994, p. 44-46.
- ^ a b c d Olbrycht 2000.
- ^ Olbrycht 2021: "Apparently the Dahai represented an entity not identical with the other better known groups of the Sakai, i.e. the Sakai (Sakā) tigrakhaudā (Massagetai, roaming in Turkmenistan), and Sakai (Sakā) Haumavargā (in Transoxania and beyond the Syr Daryā)."
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (2003). "HAUMAVARGĀ". Encyclopædia Iranica.
- ISBN 978-0-521-61191-6.
- ^ a b Francfort 1988, p. 173.
- ^ a b Bailey 1983, p. 1230.
- ISBN 978-1-57506-120-7.
This is Kingdom which I hold, from the Scythians [Saka] who are beyond Sogdiana, thence unto Ethiopia [Cush]; from Sind, thence unto Sardis.
- ^ a b c Cook 1985, p. 254-255.
- ^ Young 1988, p. 89.
- ^ Francfort 1988, p. 177.
- ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9.
- ^ a b c d e f g Schmitt 2018.
- ^ a b Harmatta 1999.
- ISBN 978-9-231-02846-5.
- ISBN 978-9-231-02846-5.
The middle of the third century b.c. saw the rise to power of a group of tribes consisting of the Parni (Aparni) and the Dahae, descendants of the Massagetae of the Aral Sea region.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84826-002-3.
- ISBN 978-1-316-29777-3.
- .
- ^ a b Francfort 1988, p. 168.
- ^ a b c Francfort 1988, p. 184.
- ^ Olbrycht 2021.
- ^ a b c d Yu 2010: "The Daxia 大夏 people in the valley of the Amu Darya came from the valleys of the rivers Ili and Chu. From the Geography of Strabo one can infer that the four tribes of the Asii and others came from these valleys (the so-called "land of the Sai 塞" in the Hanshu 漢書, ch. 96A). "
- ^ Järve 2019.
- ^ Unterländer 2017.
- ^ Krzewińska 2018
- ^ Unterländer et al. 2017 "The origin of the widespread Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin. On the other hand, evidence supporting an east Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts. Additionally, elements of the characteristic 'Animal Style' dated to the tenth century BCE were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence of Scythian culture in the East."
- S2CID 195887262.
Recently, studies of ancient Scythian genomes have affirmed the confederate nature of the Scythian tribes, showing them to be genetically distinct from one another but finding little or no support for large-scale east-to-west movements, instead generally suggesting separate local origins of various Scythian groups [1, 2, 3].
- ^ Järve 2019 . "The Early Iron Age nomadic Scythians have been described as a confederation of tribes of different origins, based on ancient DNA evidence [1, 2, 3]. All samples of this study also possessed at least one additional eastern component, one of which was nearly at 100% in modern Nganasans (orange) and the other in modern Han Chinese (yellow; Figure S2). The eastern components were present in variable proportions in the samples of this study."
- PMID 35663512.
It is still likely that the Xiongnu included an Eastern Iranian (Saka) component or were at least strongly influenced by the Iranians. It is also arguable that the Xiongnu learned the steppe nomadic model of economy from their Eastern Iranian neighbours (Beckwith, 2009: 72–73, 404).
- ^ de Laet & Herrmann 1996, p. 443 "The rich kurgan burials in Pazyryk, Siberia probably were those of Saka chieftains"
- ^ a b Kuzmina 2008, p. 94 "Analysis of the clothing, which has analogies in the complex of Saka clothes, particularly in Pazyryk, led Wang Binghua (1987, 42) to the conclusion that they are related to the Saka Culture."
- ^ a b Kuzmina 2007, p. 103 "The dress of Iranian-speaking Saka and Scythians is easily reconstructed on the basis of... numerous archaeological discoveries from the Ukraine to the Altai, particularly at Issyk in Kazakhstan... at Pazyryk... and Ak-Alakha"
- ^ Lebedynsky 2007, p. 125.
- ^ Harmatta 1996, p. 488: "Their royal tribes and kings (shan-yii) bore Iranian names and all the Hsiung-nu words noted by the Chinese can be explained from an Iranian language of Saka type. It is therefore clear that the majority of Hsiung-nu tribes spoke an Eastern Iranian language."
- PMID 35663512.
It is still likely that the Xiongnu included an Eastern Iranian (Saka) component or were at least strongly influenced by the Iranians. It is also arguable that the Xiongnu learned the steppe nomadic model of economy from their Eastern Iranian neighbours (Beckwith, 2009: 72–73, 404).
- Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
- ^ According to Donald N. Wilber's book Persepolis, The Archaeology of Parsa, Seat of the Persian Kings, the group depicted in this panel is "the Saka tigrakhauda (Pointed-hat Scythians). All are armed and wear the appropriate headgear. They are accompanied by a horse, and offer a bracelet and folded coats and trousers, apparently copies of their own costumes."
- ^ a b c J. P. mallory. "Bronze Age Languages of the Tarim Basin" (PDF). Penn Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 September 2016.
- ^ a b Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, p. 553.
- ^ Harmatta 1996.
- ^ a b Sulimirski & Taylor 1991, p. 560-590.
- ^ Batty 2007, p. 202-203.
- ^ Sulimirski 1985.
- ^ Olbrycht 2021, p. 17-18.
- ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger (2000). "ZARINAIA". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-691-14720-8.
- ^ Francfort 1988, p. 171.
- ^ Dandamayev 1994, pp. 35–64.
- ISBN 978-9-004-32988-1.
- ISBN 978-0-691-17027-5.
- ISBN 978-1-136-01694-3.
- ^ a b c d Schmitt, Rüdiger (1989). "AMORGES". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 8 July 2022.
- ^ Dandamayev 1994.
- ^ Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1989). "DARIUS iii. Darius I the Great". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 12 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-19-968917-0.
- ^ Dandamayev 1994, pp. 44–46
- ^ Vogelsang 1992, p. 131.
- ISBN 978-9-004-10844-8.
- ^ Vogelsang 1992, p. 160.
- ^ Francfort 1988, p. 185: Besides trade and exchange within the borders of the Achaemenid empire, it seems that the part of Central Asua under Achaemenid rule was in contact with the Saka tribes who were in touch with China (see the finds of kurgans II and V of Pazyryk and of Xinyuan and Alagou in Xinjiang).
- ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
- ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bailey 1983.
- ISBN 978-1-135-79704-1.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9.
- ISBN 978-7-5004-0432-3; OCLC 28622013
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- ^ Hansen, Valerie (2005). "The Tribute Trade with Khotan in Light of Materials Found at the Dunhuang Library Cave" (PDF). Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 19: 37–46.
- ^ Ulrich Theobald. (16 October 2011). "City-states Along the Silk Road." ChinaKnowledge.de. Accessed 2 September 2016.
- ^ Xavier Tremblay, "The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia: Buddhism Among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century", in The Spread of Buddhism, eds Ann Heirman and Stephan Peter Bumbacker, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 2007, p. 77.
- ^ ISBN 978-92-3-103211-0.
- ^ Lurje, Pavel (2009). "YARKAND". Encyclopædia Iranica.
The territory of Yārkand is for the first time mentioned in the Hanshu (1st century BCE), under the name Shache (Old Chinese, approximately, *s³a(j)-ka), which is probably related to the name of the Iranian Saka tribes.
- ^ Whitfield 2004, p. 47.
- ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
- ISBN 978-0-253-35385-6.
- ISBN 978-1-136-15034-0.
- ISBN 978-8412527858.
- ^ a b c Baumer 2012, p. 290
- ISBN 0-500-05101-1.
- ISBN 978-1-900838-03-0.
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- ISBN 978-0-472-11534-1.
- ^ Di Cosmo 2002, pp. 174–189
- ^ Di Cosmo 2004, pp. 196–198
- ^ Di Cosmo 2002, pp. 241–242
- ^ Yu Taishan (June 2010), "The Earliest Tocharians in China" in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp. 13–14, 21–22.
- ^ Benjamin, Craig. "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia".
- ISBN 92-3-102846-4.
- ^ ISBN 0-8135-1304-9.
- ^ Baumer 2012, p. 296
- ^ a b Ulrich Theobald. (26 November 2011). "Chinese History – Sai 塞 The Saka People or Soghdians." ChinaKnowledge.de. Accessed 2 September 2016.
- ^ Lebedynsky 2006, p. 73.
- ^ Mallory & Mair 2008, pp. 329–330.
- ^ Lebedynsky 2006, p. 84.
- ^ Attwood, Jayarava (2012). "Possible Iranian Origins for the Śākyas and Aspects of Buddhism". Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies. 3.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-6632-8.
- ISSN 1747-9681. "The evidence for this final wave is however, very slim and there is no evidence for it in the Vedic texts; for their western origin, Witzel relies on a reference in Pāṇini (4.2.131, madravṛjyoḥ) to the Vṛjjis in dual relation with the Madras who are from the northwest, and to the Mallas in the Jaiminīya Brāhamaṇa (§198) as arising from the dust of Rajasthan. Neither the Sakyas nor any of the other eastern tribes are mentioned, and of course there is no proof that any of these are Indo-Aryan groups. I view the Sakyas and the later Śakas as two separate groups, the former being aboriginal."
- ^ Abdullaev, Kazim (2007). "Nomad Migration in Central Asia (in After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam)". Proceedings of the British Academy. 133: 87–98.
- ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org.
- ^ "Also a Saka according to this source".
- ^ ISBN 9789080057272.
The evidence of both the ancient authors and the archaeological remains point to a massive migration of Sacian (Sakas) / Massagetan tribes from the Syr Daria Delta (Central Asia) by the middle of the second century B.C. Some of the Syr Darian tribes; they also invaded North India.
- ^ Bivar, A. D. H. "KUSHAN DYNASTY i. Dynastic History". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
- ^ Rishi, Weer Rajendra (1982). India & Russia: linguistic & cultural affinity. Roma. p. 95.
- ISBN 978-0-904173-16-1.
- ^ a b c "Strabo, Geography, 11.8.1". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 13 September 2012.
- ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5.
- ^ Hansen, Valerie (2005). "The Tribute Trade with Khotan in Light of Materials Found at the Dunhuang Library Cave" (PDF). Bulletin of the Asia Institute. 19: 37–46. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press, 2004. pg 197
- ^ Edward A Allworth,Central Asia: A Historical Overview,Duke University Press, 1994. pp 86.
- ISBN 8120815408.
- ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
- ^ Harmatta 1996, pp. 420–421.
- ISBN 9783406093975.
[T]hese western Saka he distinguishes from eastern Saka who moved south through the Kashgar-Tashkurgan-Gilgit-Swat route to the plains of the sub-continent of India. This would account for the existence of the ancient Khotanese-Saka speakers, documents of whom have been found in western Sinkiang, and the modern Wakhi language of Wakhan in Afghanistan, another modern branch of descendants of Saka speakers parallel to the Ossetes in the west.
- ^ Bailey, H.W. (1982). The culture of the Sakas in ancient Iranian Khotan. Caravan Books. pp. 7–10.
It is noteworthy that the Wakhi language of Wakhan has features, phonetics, and vocabulary the nearest of Iranian dialects to Khotan Saka.
- ISBN 978-1-135-79704-1. "In addition to the continuation of Middle Persian in New Persian, three small modern languages show significant grammatical and lexical reflexes of other documented Middle Iranian languages: In Iran, Sangesari of the Semnan group shares a distinct set of features with Khwarezmian. In the east, Yaghnobi in Tajikistan continues a dialect of Sogdian, and Wakhi in the Pamirs shows distinct reflexes of Khotanese and Tumshuqese Saka. In fact, Wakhi is an example of the repeated invasions of Saka since antiquity."
- ^ Carpelan, C.; Parpola, A.; Koskikallio, P. (2001). "Early Contacts Between Uralic and Indo-European: Linguistic and Archaeological Considerations: Papers Presented at an International Symposium Held at the Tvärminne Research Station of the University of Helsinki, 8–10 January, 1999". Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. 242: 136.
...descendants of these languages survive now only in the Ossete language of the Caucasus and the Wakhi language of the Pamirs, the latter related to the Saka once spoken in Khotan.
- ^ Novak, L. (2014). "Question of (Re)classification of Eastern Iranian Languages". Linguistica Brunensia. 62 (1): 77–87.
- S2CID 27711154.
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- PMID 15022363.
- ^ "Legal bid fails to rebury remains of 2,500 year old tattooed 'ice princess'". The Siberian Times. 2016.
- PMID 23152818.
- ^ Unterländer et al. 2017.
- ^ Unterländer 2017, p. 69: "Thirdly, contemporary populations with the highest likelihood of being directly descended from eastern Scythian groups are almost exclusively Turkic language speakers (Supplementary Fig. 10b). Particularly high statistical support was documented for some Turkic speaking groups geographically located close to the archaeological sites of the eastern Scythians (e.g. Telenghits, Tubular, Tofalar), but also among Turkic speaking populations located in Central Asia (e.g. Kyrgyz, Kazakhs and Karakalpaks) (Supplementary Fig. 11). These same results were found for some Turkic groups located even further to the West, such as the Kazan Volga-Tatars. Finally, contemporary populations likely to share a common ancestor with eastern Scythians were mainly found among Turkic, Mongolian and Siberian groups located in eastern Eurasia (Supplementary Fig. 10d and Supplementary Fig. 11). In summary, these results provide further support for a multi-regional origin of the various Scythian groups from the Iron Age."
- S2CID 21347353.
- ^ S2CID 13670282.
- ^ Tikhonov et al. 2019, p. 42: "In other words, there is an apparent population continuity from the Scythians to the Xiongnu and then onto the Turkic people, possibly because the former two already bore proto-Turkic elements."
- ^ Веселовская, Е.В.; Галеев, Р.М. (2020). "АНТРОПОЛОГИЧЕСКАЯ РЕКОНСТРУКЦИЯ ВНЕШНЕГО ОБЛИКА "ЦАРЯ" И "ЦАРИЦЫ" РАННЕСКИФСКОГО ПОГРЕБАЛЬНО-ПОМИНАЛЬНОГО КОМПЛЕКСА АРЖАН-2" (PDF). Вестник археологии, антропологии и этнографии. 2 (49).
In anthropological terms, the buried show a peculiar mosaic of Caucasoid and Mongoloid features. They are characterized by brachycephaly and dome-shaped head, with notably developed rugosity of the supercilium in the man and its absence in the woman. For the man, an average width of the face and a narrow forehead of medium height are noted. The woman has broad face and forehead, the height of the forehead is average. Both portraits are characterized by prominent position of eyeballs and large eyes. Man's nose is short, prominent, with convex dorsum. Woman's nose has a wavy dorsum, and is slightly prominent. On the male portrait, the cheekbones are moderate, on the female one — high and prominent. Faces of the «royal» persons are flattened in the upper part, with a certain degree of alveolar prognathism. The lower jaw of the man is medium in size, narrow in the corners. For the woman, some gracility of the lower jaw can be noted.
- S2CID 13670282. "Principal component analyses and D-statistics suggest that the Xiongnu individuals belong to two distinct groups, one being of East Asian origin and the other presenting considerable admixture levels with West Eurasian sources... Principal Component Analyses and D-statistics suggest that the Xiongnu individuals belong to two distinct groups, one being of East Asian origin and the other presenting considerable admixture levels with West Eurasian sources... We find that Central Sakas are accepted as a source for these 'western-admixed' Xiongnu in a single-wave model. In line with this finding, no East Asian gene flow is detected compared to Central Sakas as these form a clade with respect to the East Asian Xiongnu in a D-statistic, and furthermore, cluster closely together in the PCA (Figure 2)... Overall, our data show that the Xiongnu confederation was genetically heterogeneous, and that the Huns emerged following minor male-driven East Asian gene flow into the preceding Sakas that they invaded... As such our results support the contention that the disappearance of the Inner Asian Scythians and Sakas around two thousand years ago was a cultural transition that coincided with the westward migration of the Xiongnu. This Xiongnu invasion also led to the displacement of isolated remnant groups related to Late Bronze Age pastoralists that had remained on the southeastern side of the Tian Shan mountains."
- ^ a b Jeong et al. 2020.
- ^ Jeong et al. 2020, Visualization: Figure 3C Statistics: Table S5. Population Modeling, Related to Figures 3, 4, and 5. (D).
- S2CID 247855352.
Of these, the Sakas were the descendants of Late Bronze Age (LBA) herders (such as the Andronovo, Srubnaya, and Sintashta) with additional ancestries derived from Lake Baikal (Shamanka_EBA) (EBA, Early Bronze Age) and BMAC populations (1, 17, 18). ... Further, although the spread of languages is not always congruent with population histories (32), the presence of Saka ancestry in Xinj_IA populations supports an IA introduction of the Indo-Iranian Khotanese language, which was spoken by the Saka and later attested to in this region (19).
- PMID 34320653.
- PMID 33771866.
- PMID 23152818.
The Pazyryk groups analysed so far appear to be genetically homogeneous and they did not present significant genetic differences to current Altaians. These results suggest that roots of the current genetic diversity and admixture of the Altai region in Central Asia could be traced back to the Iron Age.
- PMID 36006373.
Given the Steppe-related ancestry (e.g., Andronovo) existing in Scythians (i.e., Saka; Unterländer et al. 2017; Damgaard et al. 2018; Guarino-Vignon et al. 2022), the proposed linguistic and physical anthropological links between the Tajiks and Scythians (Han 1993; Kuz′mina and Mallory 2007) may be ascribed to their shared Steppe-related ancestry.
- S2CID 202015095. "The substantial presence of the Ak-Alakha-1 mtDNA and Y-STR haplotypes in the contemporary Anatolian populations may be attributed to two major historical events: (a) the less likely being the Scythian invasion of Anatolia around 7th century BCE and settlement for around 30 years near the Aras or Araxes River (Herodotus 1920), and (b) the more likely being the Central Asiatic Turkic migrations into Anatolia from around 11th century CE onwards, keeping in mind the ever growing support for a strong genetic continuity between the ancient eastern Scythians and the proto-Turkic tribes (Unterlander et al. 2017)."
- PMID 36006373.
By contrast, the Kyrgyz, together with other Turkic-speaking populations, originated from the admixture since the Iron Age. The Historical Era gene flow derived from the Eastern Steppe with the representative of Mongolia_Xiongnu_o1 made a more substantial contribution to Kyrgyz and other Turkic-speaking populations (i.e., Kazakh, Uyghur, Turkmen, and Uzbek; 34.9–55.2%) higher than that to the Tajik populations (11.6–18.6%; fig. 4A), suggesting Tajiks suffer fewer impacts of the recent admixtures (Martínez-Cruz et al. 2011). Consequently, the Tajik populations generally present patterns of genetic continuity of Central Asians since the Bronze Age. Our results are consistent with linguistic and genetic evidence that the spreading of Indo-European speakers into Central Asia was earlier than the expansion of Turkic speakers (Kuz′mina and Mallory 2007; Yunusbayev et al. 2015).
- ISSN 0972-3757.
Notably, there is clear population continuity between the Uralic people such as Khants, Mansis and Nganasans, Paleo-Siberian people such as Yukaghirs and Chuvantsi, and the Pazyryk people even when considering just the two mtDNA and Y-STR haplotypes from the Ak-Alakha-1 mound 1 kurgan (Tables 1a, b, Table 2, Fig. 1).
- S2CID 245849003.
- ^ PMID 31303491.
This is compatible with a moderate westward increase of the Altaian genetic component in the Steppe during the Scythian period, implying the involvement of at least some degree of migration (east to west; the more complicated scenarios that have been proposed [11] are not supported by our results) in the spread of the Scythian culture. This fits the previous observation that the Iron Age nomads of the western Eurasian Steppe were not direct descendants of the Bronze Age population [2] and suggests that the Scythian world cannot be described solely in terms of material culture.
- ^ PMID 31303491.
- S2CID 191399666.
- ^ Lukpanova, Ya.A. (2017). "Reconstruction of Female Costume From the Elite Burial Ground Taksay-I: a View of the Archaeology". Povolzhskaya Arkheologiya (The Volga River Region Arcaheology). 1 (19).
- ^ "Golden Man from Shilikty and Golden Woman from Taksai". Nur-sultan - National Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan. 23 July 2017.
- .
- ^ Alekseev A.Yu. et al., "Chronology of Eurasian Scythian Antiquities Born by New Archaeological and 14C Data", © 2001 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona, Radiocarbon, Vol .43, No 2B, 2001, p 1085-1107 Fig.6
- .
- JSTOR 24049162.
Dans le kourgane plus ancien d'Arzhan-1 (8-10ème s.)...
- ISBN 1-4020-2655-2.
p.23 "Dendrochronological and radiocarbon dating indicate that Arzhan dates to the end 9th - beginning 8th century BC (Zaitseva, Vasilev, Marsadolov, Sementsov, Dergachev, Lebedeva, 1996)."
- ISBN 1-4020-2655-2.
"We can only note certain elements in the culture of European Scythia which doubtless have an Asiatic origin and are connected with the cultures of Asia." "In many scholars' opinion it is necessary to distinguish the following cultural components of European Scythia genetically tied with the East: daggers with butterfly-shaped guards, arrowheads early forms, helmets of the Kelermes type, spiked battle-axes, horse-bits, cheek-pieces of the Chernogorovo and Zhabotinsk type, bordered mirrors, bronze cauldrons of the Beshtaugor type and "stag-stones". We can follow the development of some animal style images (deer, boar, and panther) from east to west. There are elements of stylization and degradation on the objects from the western part of the Scythian World
- ISBN 1-4020-2655-2.
p.24 "Figure.2. Royal barrow Arzhan 1: funeral artifacts. 36-39"
- ^ S2CID 131703468.
- ^ Zhumatayev, Rinat (1 January 2013). "Royal Mound Baygetobe from the Burial Ground Shilikty". International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering.
- JSTOR 24049162.
Ainsi des bractrées d'or à l'effigie du sanglier qui étaient fixées aux vêtements ont été découvertes dans les Kourganes du 6eme siècle de Chilikti (Kazakhstan oriental) et d'Arzhan-2 (Touva)
- ^ Noyanuly, Noyanov Edyl (2016). "THE "GOLDEN PEOPLE" OF KAZAKHSTAN". World Science: 47.
2003 Associate Professor of National University of Al-Farabi Kazakh National University and Professor Gani lobster Abde§ Tulebaev in East -Kazakhstan near Zaisan in place Baygetobe "Chilikti-3" number 1, the mound of the "golden man" (4262 gold find) (Figure 4)
- ISBN 1-4020-2655-2.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-64313-327-0.
- ^ "850 gold artefacts belonging to the Scythian-Saka era found in Kazakhstan". The Archaeology News Network. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
- ^ "Wikimapia - Let's describe the whole world!". wikimapia.org. Archived from the original on 23 June 2007.
- ^ Wilford, John Noble (12 March 2012). "Artifacts Show Sophistication of Ancient Nomads". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-4723-0963-1.
- ISBN 978-0-520-01395-7.
- ^ "Chariot". Hermitage Museum. Archived from the original on 6 July 2001.
- ^ a b c Pankova, Svetlana; Simpson, St John (1 January 2017). Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia. British Museum.
- ^ "Presenting the Warrior Iron Age Scythian Materials and Gender Identity at the British Museum American Journal of Archaeology". American Journal of Archaeology. July 2018.
- ^ "Presenting the Warrior Iron Age Scythian Materials and Gender Identity at the British Museum, American Journal of Archaeology". www.ajaonline.org. July 2018.
- ^ "Museum notice". 19 August 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-78969-648-6.
- ISBN 978-1-78969-648-6.
- ^ Pankova, Svetlana; Simpson, St John (1 January 2017). Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia. British Museum. p. 66, Item 25.
These graves at Tillya Tepe were initially regarded by the excavator as belonging to Yuezhi or Kushan nobility, but they are most likely to be tombs of a local tribal chief and his family who had strong connections with the Sakā cultures of Central Asia.
- ^ New Kilunovskaya, M. E., Semenov, V. A., Busova, V. S., Mustafin, Kh. Kh., Alborova, I. E., & Matzvai, A. D. (2018). The Unique Burial of a Child of Early Scythian Time at the Cemetery of Saryg-Bulun (Tuva). Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia, 46(3), 379–406.
- ^ Mallory and Mair, The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West, 2000
- ISBN 2-87772-337-2
- ISBN 978-2-7118-5218-5
- ^ "金冠塚古墳 – Sgkohun.world.coocan.jp". Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
- ^ See Linduff, Katheryn (2013). "A Contextual Explanation for "Foreign" or "Steppic" Factors Exhibited in Burials at the Majiayuan Cemetery and the Opening of the Tianshan Mountain Corridor". Asian Archaeology: 81, Figure 6 (Majiayuan Tomb 3).
- ^ Gropp, G. "Clothing v. In Pre-Islamic Eastern Iran". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
- ^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
- ^ Di Cosmo 1999, 13.5. Statuette of warrior (a), and bronze cauldron (b), Saka....
- ISBN 978-1-78969-407-9.
- . Retrieved 19 October 2020.
- ^ The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Photographic Archives. Persepolis – Apadana, E Stairway, Tribute Procession, the Saka Tigraxauda Delegation.[1] Archived 12 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 27 June 2012
- ^ ISBN 978-3-03823-838-6.
- S2CID 251690411.
In terms of formal characteristics and style of dress and adornment, the closest parallels to the Warring States-period Qin figurines are found in the Scythian culture. Wang Hui 王輝 has examined the exchanges between the cultures of the Yellow River valley and the Scythian culture of the steppe. During a 2007 exhibition on the Scythians in Berlin, there was a bronze hood on display labeled a "Kazakh military cap." This bronze hood and the clothing of the nomads in kneeling posture [also depicted in the exhibition] are very similar in form to those of the terracotta figurines from the late Warring States Qin-period tomb at the Taerpo site (see Figure 1). The style of the Scythian bronze horse figures and the saddle, bridle, and other accessories on their bodies are nearly identical to those seen on the Warring States-period Qin figurines and a similar type of artifact from the Ordos region, and they all date to the fifth to third centuries BCE.
- S2CID 165092308.
King Zheng of Qin (246–221 BC), who was to be the First Emperor (221–210 BC), took material from many regions. As he unified the territory, he employed steppe cavalry men in his army, as we now recognise from the terracotta warriors guarding his tomb (Khayutina 2013: cat. no. 314), whose dress resembles that of the steppe leaders known to the Achaemenids and Parthians (Curtis 2000: front cover), but he proclaimed his conquest in the language of the Central Plains: Chinese. The First Emperor must have had advisors who knew something of the seals, weights and measures of Central Asia and Iran (Khayutina 2013: cat. nos 115–17), and also retained craftsmen who had mastered Western technologies and cast bronze birds for his tomb in hitherto unknown life-like forms (Mei et al. 2014). He also exploited mounted horsemen and iron weaponry originally from the steppe, and agriculture and settlements of the Central Plains, turning to the extraordinary organisation of people and manufacturing from this area to create a unified state. This could only be achieved by moving towards the centre, as the Emperor indeed did.
- ^ "Early Nomads of the Altaic Region". The Hermitage. Archived from the original on 22 June 2007. Retrieved 31 July 2007.
- ^ Pankova, Svetlana; Simpson, St John (1 January 2017). Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia. British Museum. pp. 106–109.
- ^ Barkova, L. L.; Pankova, S. V. (2005). "Tattooed Mummies From The Large Pazyryk Mounds: New findings". Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia. 2 (22): 48–59. Retrieved 21 December 2023.
- ^ Pankova, Svetlana; Simpson, St John (1 January 2017). Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia. British Museum. pp. 106–109, Items 31, 32, 33.
- ^ a b c d "Siberian Princess reveals her 2,500 year old tattoos". The Siberian Times. 2012.
- ^ Pankova, Svetlana; Simpson, St John (1 January 2017). Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia. British Museum. pp. 106–109, Items 31, 32, 33.
- S2CID 161894416.
- ^ ISBN 978-9461616272.
- ^ a b Several photographs and descriptions in: 徐, 龙国 (2017). "山东发现的汉代大型胡人石雕像再研究" (PDF). 美术研究 (Art Research).
上述石雕像为胡人形象,对此学者们均无异议。胡人是我国古代中原汉人对北方和西方异族的通称。在汉人的认知领域,胡人的概念比较模糊,大致也有个变化的过程。先秦时的胡,专指匈奴,汉晋时期泛指匈奴、鲜卑、羯、氐、羌,"胡人"的范围已由北方逐渐扩大到西部族群。
"The above-mentioned stone statues are images of Hu people, and scholars have no objection to this. Hu people are the general name given by the Han people in the Central Plains of our country to the foreign ethnic groups in the north and west in ancient China. In the cognitive field of Han people, the concept of Hu people is relatively vague, and it has a tendency to change with time. The Hu in the pre-Qin period refers specifically to the Xiongnu, but in the Han and Jin dynasties generally Hu refers to the Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di, and Qiang. The scope of "Hu people" also expanded from the north to the west."
山东发现的这种高鼻深目、头戴尖帽的胡人形象,很可能是与斯基泰人文化有关的某些白种民族,并推测可能是月氏或早于月氏的民族
"The image of a barbarian with a high nose, deep eyes, and a pointed hat found in Shandong is likely to be some white ethnic group related to the Scythian culture, and it is speculated that it may be the Yuezhi or an ethnic group earlier than the Yuezhi." - ^ a b Bi, Zhicheng (2019). "Stone Reliefs of the Han Tombs in Shandong Province: Relationship Between Motifs and Composition" (PDF). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. 368: 175–177.
- ^ Bi, Zhicheng (2019). "Stone Reliefs of the Han Tombs in Shandong Province: Relationship Between Motifs and Composition" (PDF). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. 368.
This type of composition is characteristic of the reliefs describing the Hu and Han war found in the Wurongci Temple and Wukaimingci Temple in Jiaxiang County, as well as of the image on the table at the entrance to the Yinan Beizhai tomb in the Linyi city. These works have a symmetrical composition with the center in the form of a bridge.
- ^ S2CID 256778140.
Other evidence to support our argument is that Western, Asian-style architectural elements such as Hu statue columns and arched doorways (Figure 35) indicate the influence of foreign styles in some of the large, high-grade Han pictorial stone tombs currently found in this region, such as the afore-mentioned Wu Baizhuang 吳白莊 tomb in Linyi 臨 沂, Shandong.
- ^ "线刻射猎纹骨管". www.gansumuseum.com.
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External links
- Pankova, Svetlana; Simpson, St John (1 January 2017). Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia. British Museum exhibition catalogue.
- Eliot, Charles Norton Edgcumbe (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). p. 53.
- Scythians / Sacae by Jona Lendering
- Article by Kivisild et al. on genetic heritage of early Indian settlers
- Indian, Japanese and Chinese Emperors – The Sakas/Parthians, 97 BC-125 AD