Glossary of ancient Roman religion
Religion in ancient Rome |
---|
Practices and beliefs |
Priesthoods |
Deities |
Deified leaders: |
Related topics |
|
The vocabulary of
For
Glossary
A
abominari
The verb abominari ("to avert an omen", from ab-, "away, off," and ominari, "to pronounce on an omen") was a term of
aedes
The aedes was the dwelling place of a god.
In his work
The word
ager
In religious usage, ager (territory, country, land, region) was terrestrial space defined for the purposes of augury in relation to
ara
The focal point of sacrifice was the
Perhaps the best-known Roman altar is the elaborate and Greek-influenced Ara Pacis, which has been called "the most representative work of Augustan art."[19] Other major public altars included the Ara Maxima.
arbor felix
Some trees were
Arbores infelices were those under the protection of
attrectare
The verb attrectare ("to touch, handle, lay hands on") referred in specialized religious usage to touching sacred objects while performing cultic actions. Attrectare had a positive meaning only in reference to the actions of the sacerdotes populi Romani ("priests of the Roman people"). It had the negative meaning of "contaminate" (= contaminare) or pollute when referring to the handling of sacred objects by those not authorized, ordained, or ritually purified.[24]
augur
An augur (Latin plural augures) was an official and priest who solicited and interpreted the will of the gods regarding a proposed action. The augur ritually defined a
auguraculum
The
augurium
Augurium (plural auguria) is an abstract noun that pertains to the augur. It seems to mean variously: the "sacral investiture" of the augur;[27] the ritual acts and actions of the augurs;[28] augural law (ius augurale);[29] and recorded signs whose meaning had already been established.[30] The word is rooted in the IE stem *aug-, "to increase," and possibly an archaic Latin neuter noun *augus, meaning "that which is full of mystic force." As the sign that manifests the divine will,[31] the augurium for a magistrate was valid for a year; a priest's, for his lifetime; for a temple, it was perpetual.[32]
The distinction between augurium and
Ancient sources record three auguria: the augurium salutis in which every year the gods were asked whether it was fas (permissible, right) to ask for the safety of the Roman people (August 5); the augurium canarium, a dog sacrifice (see also supplicia canum) to promote the maturation of grain crops, held in the presence of the pontiffs as well as the augurs "when ears of wheat have already formed but are still in the sheaths";[37] and the vernisera auguria mentioned by Festus, which should have been a springtime propitiary rite held at the time of the harvest (auguria messalia).
auspex
The auspex, plural auspices, is a diviner who reads
auspicia
The
According to
The taking of the auspices required ritual silence (silentium). Watching for auspices was called spectio or servare de caelo. The appearance of expected signs resulted in nuntiatio, or if they were unfavourable obnuntiatio. If unfavourable auspices were observed, the business at hand was stopped by the official observer, who declared alio die ("on another day").[42]
The practice of observing bird omens was common to many ancient peoples predating and contemporaneous with Rome, including the Greeks,[43] Celts,[44] and Germans.[citation needed]
auspicia impetrativa
Auspicia impetrativa were signs that were solicited under highly regulated ritual conditions (see
auspicia maiora
The right of observing the "greater auspices" was conferred on a Roman magistrate holding imperium, perhaps by a Lex curiata de imperio, although scholars are not agreed on the finer points of law.[49] A censor had auspicia maxima.[50] It is also thought that the flamines maiores were distinguished from the minores by their right to take the auspicia maiora; see Flamen.
auspicia oblativa
Signs that occurred without deliberately being sought through formal
auspicia privata
Private and domestic religion was linked to divine signs as state religion was. It was customary in
averruncare
In pontifical usage, the verb averruncare, "to avert," denotes a ritual action aimed at averting a misfortune intimated by an omen. Bad omens (
B
bellum iustum
A "
C
caerimonia
The English word "ceremony" derives from the Latin caerimonia or caeremonia, a word of obscure etymology first found in literature and inscriptions from the time of Cicero (mid-1st century BC), but thought to be of much greater antiquity. Its meaning varied over time. Cicero used caerimonia at least 40 times, in three or four different senses: "inviolability" or "sanctity", a usage also of Tacitus; "punctilious veneration", in company with cura (carefulness, concern); more commonly in the plural caerimoniae, to mean "ritual prescriptions" or "ritual acts." The plural form is endorsed by Roman grammarians.
In his Etymologiae, Isidore of Seville says that the Greek equivalent is orgia, but derives the word from carendo, "lacking", and says that some think caerimoniae should be used of Jewish observances, specifically the dietary law that requires abstaining from or "lacking" certain foods.[69]
calator
The calatores were assistants who carried out day-to-day business on behalf of the senior priests of the state such as the derives the word from the Greek verb kalein, "to call."
capite velato
At the traditional public rituals of ancient Rome, officiants prayed, sacrificed, offered
It has been argued that the Roman expression of piety capite velato influenced
carmen
In classical Latin,
A carmen malum or maleficum is a potentially harmful magic spell. A fragment of the Twelve Tables reading si malum carmen incantassit ("if anyone should chant an evil spell") shows that it was a longstanding concern of Roman law to suppress malevolent magic.[78] A carmen sepulchrale is a spell that evokes the dead from their tombs; a carmen veneficum, a "poisonous" charm.[79] Through magical practice, the word carmen comes to mean also the object on which a spell is inscribed, hence a charm in the physical sense.[80]
castus, castitas
Castus is an adjective meaning morally pure or guiltless (English "chaste"), hence pious or ritually pure in a religious sense. Castitas is the abstract noun. Various etymologies have been proposed, among them two IE stems: *k'(e)stos[81] meaning "he who conforms to the prescriptions of rite"; or *kas-, from which derives the verb careo, "I defice, am deprived of, have none..." i.e. vitia.[82] In Roman religion, the purity of ritual and those who perform it is paramount: one who is correctly cleansed and castus in religious preparation and performance is likely to please the gods. Ritual error is a pollutant; it vitiates the performance and risks the gods' anger. Castus and castitas are attributes of the sacerdos (priest),[83] but substances and objects can also be ritually castus.[84]
cinctus Gabinus
The cinctus Gabinus ("Gabine cinch") was a way of wearing the
clavum figere
Clavum figere ("to nail in, to fasten or fix the nail") was an expression that referred to the fixing or "sealing" of fate.
The importance of this ritual is lost in obscurity, but in the early Republic it is associated with the appointment of a dictator clavi figendi causa, "dictator for the purpose of driving the nail,"[95] one of whom was appointed for the years 363, 331, 313, and 263 BC.[96] Livy attributes this practice to religio, religious scruple or obligation. It may be that in addition to an annual ritual, there was a "fixing" during times of pestilence or civil discord that served as a piaculum.[97] Livy says that in 363, a plague had been ravaging Rome for two years. It was recalled that a plague had once been broken when a dictator drove a ritual nail, and the senate appointed one for that purpose.[98] The ritual of "driving the nail" was among those revived and reformed by Augustus, who in 1 AD transferred it to the new Temple of Mars Ultor. Henceforth a censor fixed the nail at the end of his term.[99]
collegium
A
- Pontifices, the Pontifex Maximus;
- Augures;
- Quindecimviri sacris faciundis, the fifteen priests in charge of the Sibylline Books;
- Septemviri epulonum, the board of seven priests who organized public banquets for religious holidays.
In Roman society, a collegium might also be a trade guild or neighborhood association; see Collegium (ancient Rome).
comitia calata
The comitia calata ("calate assemblies") were non-voting
The comitia calata were organized by
Mommsen thought the calendar abbreviation QRCF, given once as Q. Rex C. F.[107] and taken as Quando Rex Comitiavit Fas, designated a day when it was religiously permissible for the rex to "call" for a comitium, hence the comitia calata.[108]
commentarii augurales
The Commentaries of the Augurs were written collections probably of the
commentarii pontificum
The Commentaries of the Pontiffs contained a record of decrees and official proceedings of the
The commentarii survive only through quotation or references in ancient authors.[121] These records are not readily distinguishable from the libri pontificales; some scholars maintain that the terms commentarii and libri for the pontifical writings are interchangeable. Those who make a distinction hold that the libri were the secret archive containing rules and precepts of the ius sacrum (holy law), texts of spoken formulae, and instructions on how to perform ritual acts, while the commentarii were the responsa (opinions and arguments) and decreta (binding explications of doctrine) that were available for consultation. Whether or not the terms can be used to distinguish two types of material, the priestly documents would have been divided into those reserved for internal use by the priests themselves, and those that served as reference works on matters external to the college.[122] Collectively, these titles would have comprised all matters of pontifical law, ritual, and cult maintenance, along with prayer formularies[123] and temple statutes.[124] See also libri pontificales and libri augurales.
coniectura
Coniectura is the reasoned but speculative interpretation of signs presented unexpectedly, that is, of novae res, "novel information." These "new signs" are omens or portents not previously observed, or not observed under the particular set of circumstances at hand. Coniectura is thus the kind of interpretation used for ostenta and portenta as constituting one branch of the "Etruscan discipline"; contrast observatio as applied to the interpretation of fulgura (thunder and lightning) and exta (entrails). It was considered an ars, a "method" or "art" as distinguished from disciplina, a formal body of teachings which required study or training.[125]
The origin of the Latin word coniectura suggests the process of making connections, from the verb conicio, participle coniectum (con-, "with, together", and iacio, "throw, put"). Coniectura was also a rhetorical term applied to forms of argumentation, including court cases.[126] The English word "conjecture" derives from coniectura.
consecratio
Consecratio was the ritual act that resulted in the creation of an
cultus
Cicero defined
D
decretum
Decreta (plural) were the binding explications of doctrine issued by the official priests on questions of religious practice and interpretation. They were preserved in written form and archived.[135] Compare responsum.
delubrum
A delubrum was a shrine.
Isidore connected the delubrum with the verb diluere, "to wash", describing it as a "spring-shrine", sometimes with annexed pool, where people would wash before entering, thus comparable to a Christian baptismal font.[141]
detestatio sacrorum
When a person passed from one gens to another, as for instance by adoption, he renounced the religious duties (sacra) he had previously held in order to assume those of the family he was entering.[142] The ritual procedure of detestatio sacrorum was enacted before a calate assembly.[143]
deus, dea, di, dii
Deus, "god"; dea, "goddess", plural deae; di or dii, "gods", plural, or "deities", of mixed gender. The Greek equivalent is
devotio
The
dies imperii
A
The dies Augusti or dies Augustus was more generally any anniversary pertaining to the imperial family, such as birthdays or weddings, appearing on official calendars as part of
dies lustricus
The
dies natalis
A dies natalis was a birthday ("natal day"; see also
The date when a temple was founded, or when it was rededicated after a major renovation or rebuilding, was also a dies natalis, and might be felt as the "birthday" of the deity it housed as well. The date of such ceremonies was therefore chosen by the pontiffs with regard to its position on the religious calendar. The "birthday" or foundation date of Rome was celebrated April 21, the day of the Parilia, an archaic pastoral festival.[162] As part of a flurry of religious reforms and restorations in the period from 38 BC to 17 AD, no fewer than fourteen temples had their dies natalis moved to another date, sometimes with the clear purpose of aligning them with new Imperial theology after the collapse of the Republic.[163]
The birthdays of emperors were observed with public ceremonies as an aspect of
A birthday commemoration was also called a natalicium, which could take the form of a poem. Early Christian poets such as Paulinus of Nola adopted the natalicium poem for commemorating saints.[164] The day on which Christian martyrs died is regarded as their dies natalis; see Calendar of saints.
dies religiosus
According to
dies vitiosus
The phrase diem vitiare ("to vitiate a day") in augural practice meant that the normal activities of public business were prohibited on a given day, presumably by
dirae
The adjective dirus as applied to an omen meant "dire, awful." It often appears in the
disciplina Etrusca
The collective body of knowledge pertaining to the doctrine, ritual practices, laws, and science of
.divus
The
do ut des
The formula do ut des ("I give that you might give") expresses the reciprocity of exchange between human being and deity, reflecting the importance of gift-giving as a mutual obligation in ancient society and the contractual nature of Roman religion. The gifts offered by the human being take the form of sacrifice, with the expectation that the god will return something of value, prompting gratitude and further sacrifices in a perpetuating cycle.
In
E
effatio
The verb effari,
evocatio
The "calling forth" or "summoning away" of a deity was an evocatio, from evoco, evocare, "summon." The ritual was conducted in a military setting either as a threat during a
Recorded examples of evocations include the transferral of
Formal evocations are known only during the
Evocatio, "summons", was also a term of Roman law without evident reference to its magico-religious sense.[201]
exauguratio
A site that had been inaugurated (locus inauguratus), that is, marked out through augural procedure, could not have its purpose changed without a ceremony of reversal.
The term could also be used for removing someone from a priestly office (sacerdotium).[207] Compare inauguratio.
eximius
An adjective, "choice, select," used to denote the high quality required of sacrificial victims: "Victims (hostiae) are called 'select' (eximiae) because they are selected (eximantur) from the herd and designated for sacrifice, or because they are chosen on account of their choice (eximia) appearance as offerings to divine entities (numinibus)."[208] The adjective here is synonymous with egregius, "chosen from the herd (grex, gregis)."[209] Macrobius says it is specifically a sacerdotal term and not a "poetic epithet" (poeticum ἐπίθετον).
exta
The exta were the entrails of a
F
fanaticus
Fanaticus means "belonging to a
fanum
A fanum is a plot of consecrated ground, a sanctuary,
The
The English word "profane" ultimately derives from Latin pro fano,[232] "before, i.e. outside, the temple", "In front of the sanctuary," hence not within sacred ground.
fata deorum
Fata deorum or the contracted form fata deum are the utterances of the gods; that is, prophecies.[233] These were recorded in written form, and conserved by the state priests of Rome for consultation. The fata are both "fate" as known and determined by the gods, or the expression of the divine will in the form of verbal oracles.[234] Fata deum is a theme of the Aeneid, Virgil's national epic of Rome.[235]
The Sibylline Books (Fata Sibyllina or Libri Fatales), composed in Greek hexameters, are an example of written fata. These were not Roman in origin but were believed to have been acquired in only partial form by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus. They were guarded by the priesthood of the decemviri sacris faciundis "ten men for carrying out sacred rites", later fifteen in number: quindecimviri sacris faciundis. No one read the books in their entirety; they were consulted only when needed. A passage was selected at random and its relevance to the current situation was a matter of expert interpretation.[236] They were thought to contain fata rei publicae aeterna, "prophecies eternally valid for Rome".[237] They continued to be consulted throughout the Imperial period until the time of Christian hegemony. Augustus installed the Sibylline books in a special golden storage case under the statue of Apollo in the Temple of Apollo Palatinus.[238] The emperor Aurelian chastised the senate for succumbing to Christian influence and not consulting the books.[239] Julian consulted the books regarding his campaign against Persia, but departed before he received the unfavorable response of the college; Julian was killed and the Temple of Apollo Palatinus burned.[240]
fas
Fas is a central concept in Roman religion. Although translated in some contexts as "divine law,"
In Roman calendars, days marked F are dies fasti, when it is fas to attend to the concerns of everyday life.[246] In non-specialized usage, fas est may mean generally "it is permissible, it is right."
The
fasti
A record or plan of official and religiously sanctioned events. All state and societal business must be transacted on dies fasti, "allowed days". The fasti were the records of all details pertaining to these events. The word was used alone in a general sense or qualified by an adjective to mean a specific type of record. Closely associated with the fasti and used to mark time in them were the divisions of the Roman calendar.
The
felix
In its religious sense, felix means "blessed, under the protection or favour of the gods; happy." That which is felix has achieved the pax divom, a state of harmony or peace with the divine world.[250] It is rooted in Indo-European *dhe(i)l, meaning "happy, fruitful, productive, full of nourishment." Related Latin words include femina, "woman" (a person who provides nourishment or suckles); felo, "to suckle"; and filius, "son" (a person suckled).[251] See also Felicitas, both an abstraction that expressed the quality of being felix and a deity of Roman state religion.
feria
A feria on the Roman calendar is a "free day", that is, a day in which no work was done. No court sessions were held, nor was any public business conducted. Employees were entitled to a day off, and even slaves were not obliged to work. These days were codified into a system of legal public holidays, the feriae publicae, which could be
- stativae, "stationary, fixed", holidays which recurred on the same date each year;
- conceptivae, recurring holidays for which the date depended on some other factor, usually the agrarian cycle. They included );
- imperativae, one-off holidays ordered to mark a special occasion, established with an act of authority of a magistrate.
In the Christian Roman Rite, a feria is a day of the week other than Saturday or Sunday.[252] The custom throughout Europe of holding markets on the same day gave rise to the word "fair" (Spanish Feria, Italian Fiera, Catalan Fira).
festus
In the Roman calendar, a dies festus is a festive or holy day, that is, a day dedicated to a deity or deities. On such days it was forbidden to undertake any profane activity, especially official or public business. All dies festi were thus nefasti. Some days, however, were not festi and yet might not be permissible as business days (fasti) for other reasons. The days on which profane activities were permitted are profesti.[253]
fetial
The fetiales, or fetial priests.
finis
The finis (limit, border, boundary), plural fines, was an essential concept in
flamen
The fifteen flamines formed part of the College of Pontiffs. Each flamen served as the high priest to one of the official deities of Roman religion, and led the rituals relating to that deity. The flamines were regarded as the most ancient among the sacerdotes, as many of them were assigned to deities who dated back to the prehistory of Latium and whose significance had already become obscure by classical times.
The archaic nature of the flamens is indicated by their presence among Latin tribes. They officiated at ceremonies with their head covered by a velum and always wore a filamen, thread, in contrast to public rituals conducted by Greek rite (ritus graecus) which were established later. Ancient authors derive the word flamen from the custom of covering the head with the filamen, but it may be cognate to Vedic brahmin. The distinctive headgear of the flamen was the apex.
Fratres Arvales
The "Brothers of the Field" were a
G
Gabinus
The adjective gabinus describes an element of religion that the Romans attributed to practices from Gabii, a town of Latium with municipal status about 12 miles from Rome. The incorporation of Gabinian traditions indicates their special status under treaty with Rome. See cinctus gabinus and ager gabinus.[87]
H
hostia
The hostia was the offering, usually an
The difference between the victima and hostia is elsewhere said to be a matter of size, with the hostia smaller (minor).[259] Hostiae were also classified by age: lactentes were young enough to be still taking milk, but had reached the age to be purae; bidentes had reached two years of age[260] or had the two longer (bi-) incisor teeth (dentes) that are an indication of age.[261]
Hostiae could be classified in various ways. A hostia consultatoria was an offering for the purpose of consulting with a deity, that is, in order to know the will of a deity; the hostia animalis, to increase the force (mactare) of the deity.[262]
The victim might also be classified by occasion and timing. The hostia praecidanea was an "anticipatory offering" made the day before a sacrifice.
Hostia is the origin of the word "host" for the
I
inauguratio
A rite performed by
all had to be inaugurated.The term may also refer to the ritual establishing of the augural
indigitamenta
The
invocatio
The addressing of a deity in a
The equivalent term in
ius
ius divinum
"Sacred law"
L
lectisternium
The lectisternium was a propitiatory ceremony that took the form of a meal offered to divinities, as if seated for banqueting on a couch (lectus).
lex
The word lex (plural leges) derives from the Indo-European root *leg, as do the Latin verbs lego, legare, ligo, ligare ("to appoint, bequeath") and lego, legere (" to gather, choose, select, discern, read": cf. also Greek verb legein "to collect, tell, speak"), and the abstract noun religio.[291] Parties to legal proceedings and contracts bound themselves to observance by the offer of sacrifice to witnessing deities.[292]
Even though the word lex underwent the frequent semantic shift in Latin towards the legal area, its original meaning of set, formulaic words was preserved in some instances. Some cult formulae are leges: an augur's request for particular signs that would betoken divine approval in an augural rite (augurium), or in the inauguration of magistrates and some sacerdotes is named legum dictio.[293] The formula quaqua lege volet ("by whatever lex, i.e. wording he wishes") allowed a cult performer discretion in his choice of ritual words.[294] The leges templi regulated cult actions at various temples.[295][296]
In civil law, ritualised sets of words and gestures known as legis actiones were in use as a legal procedure in civil cases; they were regulated by custom and tradition (mos maiorum) and were thought to involve protection of the performers from malign or occult influences.[297]
libatio
Libation (Latin libatio, Greek spondai) was one of the simplest religious acts, regularly performed in daily life. At home, a Roman who was about to drink wine would pour the first few drops onto the household altar.[298] The drink offering might also be poured on the ground or at a public altar. Milk and honey, water, and oil were also used.[299]
liberatio
The liberatio (from the verb liberare, "to free") was the "liberating" of a place (locus) from "all unwanted or hostile spirits and of all human influences," as part of the
libri augurales
The augural books (libri augurales) represented the collective, core knowledge of the augural college. Some scholars[301] consider them distinct from the commentarii augurum (commentaries of the augurs) which recorded the collegial acts of the augurs, including the decreta and responsa.[302] The books were central to the practice of augury. They have not survived, but Cicero, who was an augur himself, offers a summary in De Legibus[303] that represents "precise dispositions based certainly on an official collection edited in a professional fashion."[304]
libri pontificales
The libri pontificales (pontifical books) are core texts in Roman religion, which survive as fragmentary transcripts and commentaries. They may have been partly annalistic, part priestly; different Roman authors refer to them as libri and commentarii (commentaries), described by Livy as incomplete "owing to the long time elapsed and the rare use of writing" and by
litatio
In
If the organs were diseased or defective, the procedure had to be restarted with a new victim (
lituus
The
lucus
In religious usage, a
ludi
Ludi were games held as part of religious festivals, and some were originally sacral in nature. These included chariot racing and the venatio, or staged animal-human blood sport that may have had a sacrificial element.
Luperci
The "wolf priests", organized into two
lustratio
The lustratio is a ritual of purification that was held every five years under the jurisdiction of censors in Rome. Its original meaning was purifying by washing in water (Lat. lustrum from verb luo, "I wash in water"). The time elapsing between two subsequent lustrations being of five years the term lustrum took up the meaning of a period of five year.[312]
M
manubia
Manubia is a technical term of the
- mild, or "perforating" lightning;
- harmful or "crushing" lightning, which is sent on the advice of the twelve Di Consentesand occasionally does some good;
- destructive or "burning" lightning, which is sent on the advice of the di superiores et involuti (hidden gods of the "higher" sphere) and changes the state of public and private affairs.[319]
Jupiter makes use of the first type of beneficial lightning to persuade or dissuade.[320] Books on how to read lightning were one of the three main forms of Etruscan learning on the subject of divination.[321]
miraculum
One of several words for portent or sign, miraculum is a non-technical term that places emphasis on the observer's response (mirum, "a wonder, marvel").
Miraculum is the origin of the English word "miracle." Christian writers later developed a distinction between miracula, the true forms of which were evidence of divine power in the world, and mere mirabilia, things to be marveled at but not resulting from
mola salsa
Flour mixed with salt was sprinkled on the forehead and between the horns of sacrificial victims, as well as on the altar and in the sacred fire. This
monstrum
A monstrum is a sign or portent that disrupts the natural order as evidence of divine displeasure.
In one of the most famous uses of the word in Latin literature, the Augustan poet Horace calls Cleopatra a fatale monstrum, something deadly and outside normal human bounds.[334] Cicero calls Catiline monstrum atque prodigium[335] and uses the phrase several times to insult various objects of his attacks as depraved and beyond the human pale. For Seneca, the monstrum is, like tragedy, "a visual and horrific revelation of the truth."[336]
mundus
Literally "the world", also a pit supposedly dug and sealed by Romulus as part of Rome's foundation rites. Its interpretation is problematic; it was normally sealed, and was ritually opened only on three occasions during the year. Still, in the most ancient Fasti, these days were marked C(omitiales)
N
nefandum
An adjective derived from nefas (following). The gerund of verb fari, to speak, is commonly used to form derivate or inflected forms of fas. See Vergil's fandi as genitive of fas. This use has been invoked to support the derivation of fas from IE root *bha, Latin fari.
nefas
Any thing or action contrary to divine law and will is nefas (in archaic legalese, ne (not) ... fas).[341] Nefas forbids a thing as religiously and morally offensive, or indicates a failure to fulfill a religious duty.[342] It might be nuanced as "a religious duty not to", as in Festus' statement that "a man condemned by the people for a heinous action is sacer" — that is, given over to the gods for judgment and disposal — "it is not a religious duty to execute him, but whoever kills him will not be prosecuted".[343]
nefastus
Usually found with dies (singular or plural), as dies nefasti, days on which official transactions were forbidden on religious grounds. See also
.nemus
Nemus, plural nemora, was one of four Latin words that meant "forest, woodland, woods."
Named nemora include:
- The nemus of Anna Perenna.[349]
- Nemus Caesarum, dedicated to the memory of Augustus's grandsons Gaius and Lucius.[350]
- The nemus Aricinum sacred to Virbius.
nuntiatio
The chief responsibility of an augur was to observe signs (observatio) and to report the results (nuntiatio).[351] The announcement was made before an assembly. A passage in Cicero states that the augur was entitled to report on the signs observed before or during an assembly and that the magistrates had the right to watch for signs (spectio) as well as make the announcement (nuntiatio) prior to the conducting of public business, but the exact significance of Cicero's distinction is a matter of scholarly debate.[352]
O
obnuntiatio
Obnuntiatio was a declaration of unfavourable signs by an augur in order to suspend, cancel or postpone a proposed course of public action. The procedure could be carried out only by an official who had the right to observe omens (spectio).[353]
The only source for the term is
observatio
Observatio was the interpretation of signs according to the tradition of the "Etruscan discipline", or as preserved in books such as the libri augurales. A haruspex interpreted fulgura (thunder and lightning) and exta (entrails) by observatio. The word has three closely related meanings in augury: the observing of signs by an augur or other diviner; the process of observing, recording, and establishing the meaning of signs over time; and the codified body of knowledge accumulated by systematic observation, that is, "unbending rules" regarded as objective, or external to an individual's observation on a given occasion. Impetrative signs, or those sought by standard augural procedure, were interpreted according to observatio; the observer had little or no latitude in how they might be interpreted. Observatio might also be applicable to many oblative or unexpected signs. Observatio was considered a kind of scientia, or "scientific" knowledge, in contrast to coniectura, a more speculative "art" or "method" (ars) as required by novel signs.[356]
omen
An omen, plural omina, was a
ostentarium
One form of arcane literature was the ostentarium, a written collection describing and interpreting signs (
ostentum
According to
The theory of ostenta, portenta and monstra constituted one of the three branches of interpretation within the disciplina Etrusca, the other two being the more specific fulgura (thunder and lightning) and exta (entrails). Ostenta and portenta are not the signs that augurs are trained to solicit and interpret, but rather "new signs", the meaning of which had to be figured out through ratio (the application of analytical principles) and coniectura (more speculative reasoning, in contrast to augural observatio).[365]
ordo sacerdotum
A religious hierarchy implied by the seating arrangements of priests (sacerdotes) at sacrificial banquets. As "the most powerful", the
P
paludatus
Paludatus (
Festus notes elsewhere that the "
pax deorum
Pax, though usually translated into English as "peace," was a compact, bargain, or agreement.[375] In religious usage, the harmony or accord between the divine and human was the pax deorum or pax divom ("the peace of the gods" or "divine peace").[376] Pax deorum was only given in return for correct religious practice. Religious error (vitium) and impiety led to divine disharmony and ira deorum (the anger of the gods).
piaculum
A
Because Roman religion was contractual (do ut des), a piaculum might be offered as a sort of advance payment; the Arval Brethren, for instance, offered a piaculum before entering their sacred grove with an iron implement, which was forbidden, as well as after.[378] The pig was a common victim for a piaculum.[379] The Augustan historian Livy says P. Decius Mus is "like" a piaculum when he makes his vow to sacrifice himself in battle (see devotio).[380]
pietas
Pietas, from which English "piety" derives, was the devotion that bound a person to the gods, to the Roman state, and to his family. It was the outstanding quality of the Roman hero Aeneas, to whom the epithet pius is applied regularly throughout the Aeneid.
pius
In Latin and other
pollucere
A verb of unknown etymology meaning "to consecrate."[385]
pontifex
The
Another hypothesis[388] considers the word as a loan from the Sabine language, in which it would mean a member of a college of five people, from Osco-Umbrian ponte, five. This explanation takes into account that the college was established by Sabine king Numa Pompilius and the institution is Italic: the expressions pontis and pomperias found in the Iguvine Tablets may denote a group or division of five or by five. The pontifex would thus be a member of a sacrificial college known as pomperia (Latin quinio).[389]
popa
The popa was one of the lesser-rank officiants at a sacrifice. In depictions of sacrificial processions, he carries a mallet or axe with which to strike the animal
porricere
The verb porricere had the specialized religious meaning "to offer as a sacrifice," especially to offer the sacrificial entrails (exta) to the gods.[391] Both exta porricere and exta dare referred to the process by which the entrails were cooked, cut into pieces, and burnt on the altar. The Arval Brethren used the term exta reddere, "to return the entrails," that is, to render unto the deity what has already been given as due.[308]
portentum
A portentum is a kind of sign interpreted by a
In the schema of A. Bouché-Leclercq, portenta and ostenta are the two types of signs that appear in inanimate nature, as distinguished from the monstrum (a biological singularity), prodigia (the unique acts or movements of living beings), and a miraculum, a non-technical term that emphasizes the viewer's reaction.[396] The sense of portentum has also been distinguished from that of ostentum by relative duration of time, with the ostentum of briefer manifestation.[397]
Although the English word "portent" derives from portentum and may be used to translate it, other Latin terms such as ostentum and prodigium will also be found translated as "portent".
precatio
The precatio was the formal addressing of the deity or deities in a ritual. The word is related by etymology to prex, "prayer" (plural preces), and usually translated as if synonymous. Pliny says that the slaughter of a sacrificial victim is ineffectual without precatio, the recitation of the prayer formula.[400] Priestly texts that were collections of prayers were sometimes called precationes.[401]
Two late examples of the precatio are the Precatio Terrae Matris ("The Prayer of Mother Earth") and the Precatio omnium herbarum ("Prayer of All the Herbs"), which are charms or
In augural procedure, precatio is not a prayer proper, but a form of invocation (invocatio) recited at the beginning of a ceremony or after accepting an oblative sign. The precatio maxima was recited for the augurium salutis, the ritual conducted by the augurs to obtain divine permission to pray for Rome's security (salus).[405]
In legal and rhetorical usage, precatio was a plea or request.[406]
prex
Prex, "prayer", usually appears in the plural, preces. Within the tripartite structure that was often characteristic of formal ancient prayer, preces would be the final expression of what is sought from the deity, following the
In general usage, preces could refer to any request or entreaty. The verbal form is precor, precari, "pray, entreat." The Umbrian cognate is persklu, "supplication." The meaning may be "I try and obtain by uttering appropriate words what is my right to obtain." It is used often in association with quaeso in expressions such as te precor quaesoque, "I pray and beseech you", or prece quaesit, "he seeks by means of prayer."[411] In Roman law of the Imperial era, preces referred to a petition addressed to the emperor by a private person.[412]
prodigium
Prodigia (plural) were unnatural deviations from the predictable order of the cosmos. A prodigium signaled divine displeasure at a religious offense and must be expiated to avert more destructive expressions of divine wrath. Compare ostentum and portentum, signs denoting an extraordinary inanimate phenomenon, and monstrum and miraculum, an unnatural feature in humans.
Prodigies were a type of
The number of confirmed prodigies rose in troubled times. In 207 BC, during one of the worst crises of the
The expiatory
profanum
propitius
An adjective of augural terminology meaning favourable. From pro-, "before", and petere, "seek" but originally "fly". It indicates a pattern in the flight of praepetes aves, birds that make the auspices favorable by flying before the person who is taking them or by pointing in the direction of that which is wished for. A synonym is secundus, "favorable" or "following".[422]
pulvinar
The pulvinar (plural pulvinaria) was a special couch used for displaying images of the gods, that they might receive offerings at ceremonies such as the
Q
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (July 2010) |
R
regina sacrorum
The
religio
The word religio originally meant an obligation to the gods, something expected by them from human beings or a matter of particular care or concern as related to the gods.[425] In this sense, religio might be translated better as "religious scruple" than with the English word "religion".[426] One definition of religio offered by Cicero is cultus deorum, "the proper performance of rites in veneration of the gods."[427]
Religio among the Romans was not based on "faith", but on knowledge, including and especially correct practice.[428] Religio (plural religiones) was the pious practice of Rome's traditional cults, and was a cornerstone of the mos maiorum,[429] the traditional social norms that regulated public, private, and military life. To the Romans, their success was self-evidently due to their practice of proper, respectful religio, which gave the gods what was owed them and which was rewarded with social harmony, peace and prosperity.
Religious law maintained the proprieties of divine honours, sacrifice and ritual. Impure sacrifice and incorrect ritual were vitia (faults, hence "vice," the English derivative); excessive devotion, fearful grovelling to deities, and the improper use or seeking of divine knowledge were superstitio; neglecting the religiones owed to the traditional gods was atheism, a charge leveled during the Empire at Jews,[431] Christians, and Epicureans.[432] Any of these moral deviations could cause divine anger (ira deorum) and therefore harm the State.[433] See Religion in ancient Rome.
religiosus
Religiosus was something pertaining to the gods or marked out by them as theirs, as distinct from
res divinae
Res divinae were "divine affairs," that is, the matters that pertained to the gods and the sphere of the divine in contrast to res humanae, "human affairs."[437] Rem divinam facere, "to do a divine thing," simply meant to do something that pertained to the divine sphere, such as perform a ceremony or rite. The equivalent Etruscan term is ais(u)na.[438]
The distinction between human and divine res was explored in the multivolume Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum, one of the chief works of
- the mythic theology of the poets, or narrative elaboration;
- the natural theology of the philosophers, or theorizing on divinity among the intellectual elite;
- the civil theology concerned with the relation of the state to the divine.
The schema is Stoic in origin, though Varro has adapted it for his own purposes.[440]
Res divinae is an example of ancient Roman religious terminology that was appropriated for Christian usage; for
responsum
Responsa (plural) were the "responses," that is, the opinions and arguments, of the official priests on questions of religious practice and interpretation. These were preserved in written form and archived.[135] Compare decretum.
rex sacrorum
The
ritus
Although ritus is the origin of the English word "rite" via
For Latin words meaning "ritual" or "rite", see sacra, caerimoniae, and religiones.[447]
ritus graecus
A small number of Roman religious practices and cult innovations were carried out according to "Greek rite" (ritus graecus), which the Romans characterized as Greek in origin or manner. A priest who conducted ritu graeco wore a Greek-style fringed tunic, with his head bare (capite aperto) or
Roman writers record elements of ritus graecus in the cult to
The Romans regarded ritus graecus as part of their own mos maiorum (ancestral tradition), and not as novus aut externus ritus, novel or foreign rite. The thorough integration and reception of rite labeled "Greek" attests to the complex, multi-ethnic origins of Rome's people and religious life.[448]
S
sacellum
sacer
Sacer describes a thing or person given to the gods, thus "sacred" to them. Human beings had no legal or moral claims on anything sacer. Sacer could be highly nuanced; Varro associates it with "perfection".[454] Through association with ritual purity, sacer could also mean "sacred, untouchable, inviolable".
Anything not sacer was profanum: literally, "in front of (or outside) the shrine", therefore not belonging to it or the gods. A thing or person could be made sacer (consecrated), or could revert from sacer to profanum (deconsecrated), only through lawful rites (resecratio) performed by a pontiff on behalf of the state.[455] Part of the ver sacrum sacrificial vow of 217 BC stipulated that animals dedicated as sacer would revert to the condition of profanum if they died through natural cause or were stolen before the due sacrificial date. Similar conditions attached to sacrifices in archaic Rome.[456] A thing already owned by the gods or actively marked out by them as divine property was distinguished as religiosus, and hence could not be given to them or made sacer.[457][458]
Persons judged sacer under Roman law were placed beyond further civil judgment, sentence and protection; their lives, families and properties were forfeit to the gods. A person could be declared sacer who harmed a
Dies sacri ("sacred days") were nefasti, meaning that the ordinary human affairs permitted on dies profani (or fasti) were forbidden.
Sacer was a fundamental principle in Roman and
sacerdos
A sacerdos (plural sacerdotes, a word of either
sacra
Sacra (neuter plural of sacer) are the traditional cult practices of classical Roman religion, either publica or privata, both of which were overseen by the College of Pontiffs.
The sacra publica were those performed on behalf of the whole Roman people or its major subdivisions, the
Sacra privata were particular to a
sacra gentilicia
Sacra gentilicia were the private rites (see
Sacra gentilicia sometimes acquired public importance, and if the gens were in danger of dying out, the state might take over their maintenance. One of the myths attached to
sacra municipalia
The sacra of an Italian town or community (municipium) might be perpetuated under the supervision of the Roman pontiffs when the locality was brought under Roman rule. Festus defined municipalia sacra as "those owned originally, before the granting of Roman citizenship; the pontiffs desired that the people continue to observe them and to practice them in the way (mos) they had been accustomed to from ancient times."[481] These sacra were regarded as preserving the core religious identity of a particular people.[482]
sacramentum
Sacramentum is an oath or vow that rendered the swearer sacer, "given to the gods," in the negative sense if he violated it.[483] Sacramentum also referred to a thing that was pledged as a sacred bond, and consequently forfeit if the oath were violated.[484] Both instances imply an underlying sacratio, act of consecration.
In Roman law, a thing given as a pledge or bond was a sacramentum. The sacramentum legis actio was a sum of money deposited in a legal procedure[485] to affirm that both parties to the litigation were acting in good faith.[486] If correct law and procedures had been followed, it could be assumed that the outcome was iustum, right or valid. The losing side had thus in effect committed perjury, and forfeited his sacramentum as a form of piaculum; the winner got his deposit back. The forfeited sacramentum was normally allotted by the state to the funding of sacra publica.[487]
The sacramentum militare (also as militum or militiae) was the oath taken by soldiers in pledging their loyalty to the consul or emperor. The sacramentum that renders the soldier sacer helps explain why he was subjected to harsher penalties, such as execution and corporal punishment, that were considered inappropriate for civilian citizens, at least under the
The sacramentum as pertaining to both the military and the law indicates the religious basis for these institutions. The term differs from iusiurandum, which is more common in legal application, as for instance swearing an oath in court. A sacramentum establishes a direct relation between the person swearing (or the thing pledged in the swearing of the oath) and the gods; the iusiurandum is an oath of good faith within the human community that is in accordance with ius as witnessed by the gods.[492]
sacrarium
A sacrarium was a place where sacred objects (sacra) were stored or deposited for safekeeping.[493] The word can overlap in meaning with sacellum, a small enclosed shrine; the sacella of the Argei are also called sacraria.[494] In Greek writers, the word is ἱεροφυλάκιον hierophylakion (hiero-, "sacred" and phylakion, something that safeguards).[495] See sacellum for a list of sacraria.
The sacrarium of a private home lent itself to Christian transformation, as a 4th-century poem by Ausonius demonstrates;[496] in contemporary Christian usage, the sacrarium is a "special sink used for the reverent disposal of sacred substances" (see piscina).[497]
sacrificium
An event or thing dedicated to the gods for their disposal. The offer of sacrifice is fundamental to
sacrosanctus
The
H. Fugier gives the meaning of sacrosanctus as guaranteed by an oath, but M. Morani interprets the first part of the compound as a consequence of the second: sanxit tribunum sacrum, the tribune is sanctioned by the law as sacer. This kind of word composition based on an etymological figure has parallels in other IE languages in archaic constructions.
Salii
The Salii were the "leaping priests" of Mars.
sancio
A verb meaning to ratify a compact and put it under the protection of a sanctio, a sanction or penalty. The formation and original meaning of the verb are debated. Some scholars think it is derived from the IE stem *sak (the same as sacer) through the insertion of a nasal n[499] infix and the suffix -yo. Thence sancio would mean to render something sacer, i.e. belonging to the gods in the sense of having their guarantee and protection.[500] Others think it is a derivation from the theonym Sancus, the god of the ratification of foedera (treaties) and the protection of good faith, from the root sancu- plus suffix -io.[501] In that case, the verb would mean an act that reflects or conforms to the function of this god, i.e. the ratifying and guaranteeing of compacts.
sanctus
Sanctus, an adjective formed on the past participle of the verb sancio, describes that which has been "established as inviolable" or "sacred", most times in a sense different from that of sacer and religiosus. Its original meaning would be "that which is protected by a sanction" (sanctio). The concept is connected to the name of the Umbrian or Sabine founder-deity Sancus, in Umbrian Sancius, whose most noted function was the ratifying and protecting of treaties (foedera).[502]
The Roman jurist
Various deities, objects, places and people – especially
Later the epithet sanctus is given to many gods including
Sanctus as applied to people over time came to share some of the sense of Latin castus (morally pure or guiltless) and pius (pious), with none of the ambiguity attached to sacer and religiosus.
In ecclesiastical Latin, sanctus is the word for saint, but even in the Christian era it continues to appear in epitaphs for people who had not converted to Christianity.[510]
servare de caelo
Literally, "to watch (for something) from the sky"; that is, to observe the
signum
A signum is a "sign, token or indication"..
silentium
Silence was generally required in the performance of every religious ritual.
sinister
In ancient times, augurs (augures ex caelo) faced south, so the happy orient, where the sun rose, lay at their left. Consequently, the word sinister (Latin for left) meant well-fated. When, under Greek influence, it became customary for augurs to face north, sinister came to indicate the ill-fated west, where light turned into darkness. It is this latter and later meaning that is attached to the English word sinister.
sodalitas
A sodalitas was a form of voluntary association or society. Its meaning is not necessarily distinct from
The sodalitates are thought to originate as aristocratic brotherhoods with cultic duties, and their existence is attested as early as the late 6th or early 5th century BC. The
spectio
Spectio ("watching, sighting, observation") was the seeking of omens through observing the sky, the flight of birds, or the feeding of birds. Originally only patrician magistrates and augurs were entitled to practice spectio, which carried with it the power to regulate assemblies and other aspects of public life, depending on whether the omens were good or bad.[524] See also obnuntiatio.
sponsio
Sponsio is a formal, religiously guaranteed obligation. It can mean both
The Latin word derives from a
In Greek it also acquired the meaning "compact, convention, treaty" (compare Latin foedus), as these were sanctioned with a libation to the gods on an altar. In Latin, sponsio becomes a legal contract between two parties, or sometimes a foedus between two nations.In legal Latin the sponsio implied the existence of a person who acted as a sponsor, a guarantor for the obligation undertaken by somebody else. The verb is spondeo, sponsus. Related words are sponsalia, the ceremony of betrothal; sponsa, fiancée; and sponsus, both the
superstitio
Superstitio was excessive devotion and enthusiasm in religious observance, in the sense of "doing or believing more than was necessary",
Before the Christian era, superstitio was seen as a vice of individuals. Practices characterized as "
supplicatio
Supplicationes are days of public prayer when the men, women, and children of Rome traveled in procession to religious sites around the city praying for divine aid in times of crisis. A suplicatio can also be a thanksgiving after the receipt of aid.[539] Supplications might also be ordered in response to prodigies; again, the population as a whole wore wreaths, carried laurel twigs, and attended sacrifices at temple precincts throughout the city.[540]
T
tabernaculum
See auguraculum. The origin of the English word "tabernacle."
templum
A templum was the sacred space defined by an
To create a templum, the augur aligned his zone of observation (auguraculum, a square, portable surround) with the cardinal points of heaven and earth. The altar and entrance were sited on the east-west axis: the sacrificer faced east. The precinct was thus "defined and freed" (effatum et liberatum).[543] In most cases, signs to the augur's left (north) showed divine approval and signs to his right (south), disapproval.[544] Temple buildings of stone followed this ground-plan and were sacred in perpetuity.[545]
Rome itself was a kind of templum, with the , using the same augural principles.
V
verba certa
Verba certa (also found nearly as often with the word order certa verba) are the "exact words" of a legal or religious formula, that is, the words as "set once and for ever, immutable and unchangeable." Compare
verba concepta
In both religious and legal usage, verba concepta ("preconceived words") were verbal formulas that could be adapted for particular circumstances. Compare
In the legal sense, concepta verba (the phrase is found with either word order) were the statements crafted by a presiding praetor for the particulars of a case.[551] Earlier in the Roman legal system, the plaintiff had to state his claim within a narrowly defined set of fixed phrases (certa verba); in the Mid Republic, more flexible formulas allowed a more accurate description of the particulars of the issue under consideration. But the practice may have originated as a kind of "dodge," since a praetor was liable to religious penalties if he used certa verba for legal actions on days marked nefastus on the calendar.[552]
St. Augustine removed the phrase verba concepta from its religious and legal context to describe the cognitive process of memory: "When a true narrative of the past is related, the memory produces not the actual events which have passed away but words conceived (verba concepta) from images of them, which they fixed in the mind like imprints as they passed through the senses."[553] Augustine's conceptualizing of memory as verbal has been used to elucidate the Western tradition of poetry and its shared origins with sacred song and magical incantation (see also carmen), and is less a departure from Roman usage than a recognition of the original relation between formula and memory in a pre-literate world.[554] Some scholars see the tradition of stylized, formulaic language as the verbal tradition from which Latin literature develops, with concepta verba appearing in poems such as Carmen 34 of Catullus.[555]
ver sacrum
The "sacred spring" was a ritual migration.
victima
The victima was the
The word victima is used interchangeably with
The difference between the victima and hostia is elsewhere said to be a matter of size, with the victima larger (maior).
victimarius
The victimarius was an attendant or assistant at a sacrifice who handled the animal.[562] Using a rope, he led the pig, sheep, or bovine that was to serve as the victim to the altar. In depictions of sacrifice, a victimarius called the popa carries a mallet or axe with which to strike the victima. Multiple victimarii are sometimes in attendance; one may hold down the victim's head while the other lands the blow.[563] The victimarius severed the animal's carotid with a ritual knife (culter), and according to depictions was offered a hand towel afterwards by another attendant. He is sometimes shown dressed in an apron (limus). Inscriptions show that most victimarii were freedmen, but literary sources in late antiquity say that the popa was a public slave.[564]
vitium
A mistake made while performing a ritual, or a disruption of augural procedure, including disregarding the auspices, was a vitium ("defect, imperfection, impediment"). Vitia, plural, could taint the outcome of elections, the validity of laws, and the conducting of military operations. The
vitulari
A verb meaning chanting or reciting a formula with a joyful intonation and rhythm.[567] The related noun Vitulatio was an annual thanksgiving offering carried out by the pontiffs on 8 July, the day after the Nonae Caprotinae. These were commemorations of Roman victory in the wake of the Gallic invasion. Macrobius says vitulari is the equivalent of Greek paianizein (παιανίζειν), "to sing a paean", a song expressing triumph or thanksgiving.[568]
votum
In a religious context,
See also
- Religion in ancient Rome
- Imperial cult (ancient Rome)
- Roman festivals, on religious holidays
- Roman polytheistic reconstructionism
References
- ^ Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1982, from the French edition of 1981), p. 110 online.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1982), p. 2266, note 472.
- ^ J. Bayet Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine Paris, 1969, p. 55.
- Servius, note to Aeneid5.530; Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint, originally published 1893), pp. 136–137.
- ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Gods", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 72.
- ^ John W. Stamper, The Architecture of Roman Temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire (Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 10.
- ^ Mary Beard, Simon Price, John North, Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998. p. 22.
- ^ Morris H. Morgan, Notes on Vitruvius Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 17 (1903, pp. 12–14).
- ^ Vitruvius, De architectura 1.2.5; John E. Stambaugh, "The Functions of Roman Temples," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.1 (1978), p. 561.
- ^ Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, reprinted 2002), pp. 129–130; Karl Loewenstein, The Governance of Rome (Martinus Nijhoff, 1973), p. 62.
- Barbette Stanley Spaeth, The Roman Goddess Ceres (University of Texas Press, 1996), p. 86ff.
- ^ J. Linderski Augural law in ANRW pp.[citation needed]
- Semo Sancus.
- ^ For usage of the term peregrinus, compare also the status of a person who was peregrinus.
- ^ Varro, De lingua latina 5.33.
- ^ Livy 27.5.15 and 29.5; P. Catalano, Aspetti spaziali del sistema giuridico-religioso romano, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.1 (1978), pp. 529 ff.
- ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 83.
- ^ Ulrike Egelhaaf-Gaiser, "Roman Cult Sites: A Pragmatic Approach," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 206.
- ^ Karl Galinsky, Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction (Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 141.
- ^ Macrobius III 20, 2, quoting Veranius in his lost work De verbis pontificalibus.
- ^ Macrobius III 12
- ^ Quoted by Macrobius, Saturnalia 3.20.
- ^ These are the modern English identifications of Robert A. Kaster in his translation of the Saturnalia for the Loeb Classical Library; in Latin, alternum sanguinem filicem, ficum atram, quaeque bacam nigram nigrosque fructus ferunt, itemque acrifolium, pirum silvaticum, pruscum rubum sentesque. On the textual issues raised by the passage, see Kaster, Studies on the Text of Macrobius' Saturnalia (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 48.
- ^ Vergil Aeneid II 717-720; Macrobius III 1, 1; E. Paratore Virgilio, Eneide I, Milano, 1978, p. 360 and n. 52; Livy V 22, 5; R. G. Austin P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos liber secundus Oxford 1964, p. 264
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 209.
- ^ John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 113–114; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2164–2288, especially p. 2174 on the military auguraculum.
- ^ Robert Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 95.
- ^ In the view of Wissowa, as cited by Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2150.
- ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," pp. 2241 et passim.
- ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," p. 2237.
- ^ a b Schilling, "Augurs and Augury," Roman and European Mythologies, p. 115.
- ^ Veit Rosenberger, "Republican nobiles: Controlling the res publica," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 299.
- ^ Schilling, p. 115.
- ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," p. 2196, especially note 177, citing Servius, note to Aeneid 3.89.
- Appius Claudius Crassus on why election to the consulate should be restricted to patricianson these grounds.
- ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," pp. 2294–2295; U. Coli, Regnum Rome 1959.
- ^ Pliny, Natural History 18.14.
- ^ Liv. VI 41; X 81; IV 6
- leges Liciniae Sextiae.
- ^ L. Schmitz, entry on "Augur," in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (London 1875).
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), pp. 226–227; Robert Schilling, "Augurs and Augury", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 116.
- ^ Schmitz, "Augur."
- )
- ). Discussion of Celtic augury by J.A. MacCulloch, The Religion of the Ancient Celts (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 247.
- ^ a b Robert Schilling, "Augurs and Augury", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 116.
- ^ W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 127.
- ^ Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, reprinted 2002), p. 103 online.
- ^ John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 113–114.
- ^ H.S. Versnel, Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (Brill, 1970), p. 324 online et passim.
- ^ T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 19 online.
- ^ Veit Rosenberger, "Republican nobiles: Controlling the res publica", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 293.
- ^ Cicero, De divinatione I 28.
- ^ Cicero, de Divinatione I 28; Cato the Elder, as quoted by Festus p. 342 L 2nd.
- ^ Festus sv. Silentio surgere, p. 438 L 2nd.
- ^ G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris 1974 part IV chapt. 4; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 526
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History 2, 13; Plautus, Curculio 438-484.
- ^ Festus, sv. regalia exta p. 382 L 2nd (p. 367 in the 1997 Teubner edition).
- ^ Livy I 20, 7.
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 20 3, citing Tarquitius Priscus: "It is necessary to order evil portents and prodigies to be burnt by means of trees which are in the tutelage of infernal or averting gods," with an enumeration of such trees (Arbores quae inferum deorum avertentiumque in tutela sunt ... quibus portenta prodigiaque mala comburi iubere oportet).
- ^ Varro, De Lingua Latina VII 102: "Ab avertendo averruncare, ut deus qui in eis rebus praeest Averruncus."
- ^ Livy 1.32; 31.8.3; 36.3.9
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London 1925), pp. 33ff.; M. Kaser, Das altroemische Ius (Goettingen 1949), pp. 22ff; P. Catalano, Linee del sistema sovrannazionale romano (Torino 1965), pp. 14ff.; W. V. Harris, War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327-70 B.C. (Oxford 1979), pp. 161 ff.
- E. Badian, Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic (Ithaca 1968, 2nd ed.), p.11.
- ^ Valerius Maximus 1.1.1.
- ^ Hendrik Wagenvort, "Caerimonia", in Studies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), pp. 84–101.
- ^ Hans-Friedrich Mueller, Roman Religion in Valerius Maximus (Routledge, 2002), pp. 64–65 online.
- ^ See Davide Del Bello, Forgotten Paths: Etymology and the Allegorical Mindset (Catholic University of America Press, 2007), pp. 34–46, on etymology as a form of interpretation or construction of meaning among Roman authors.
- ^ Wagenvoort, "Caerimonia", p. 100 online.
- ^ Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 6.19.36 online.
- ^ Festus, p. 354 L2 = p. 58 M; Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 227 online.
- Robert E.A. Palmer, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 83.
- ^ Capite aperto, "bareheaded"; Martin Söderlind, Late Etruscan Votive Heads from Tessennano («L'Erma» di Bretschneider, 2002), p. 370 online.
- ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 78.
- ^ Classical Sculpture: Catalogue of the Cypriot, Greek, and Roman Stone Sculpture in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2006), p. 169.
- ^ 1 Corinthians 11:4; see Neil Elliott, Liberating Paul: The Justice of God and the Politics of the Apostle (Fortress Press, 1994, 2006), p. 210 online; Bruce W. Winter, After Paul Left Corinth: The Influence of Secular Ethics and Social Change (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2001), pp. 121–123 online, citing as the standard source D.W.J. Gill, "The Importance of Roman Portraiture for Head-Coverings in 1 Corinthians 11:2–16", Tyndale Bulletin 41 (1990) 245–260; Elaine Fantham, "Covering the Head at Rome" Ritual and Gender," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 159, citing Richard Oster, "When Men Wore Veils to Worship: The Historical Context of 1 Corinthians 11:4." New Testament Studies 34 (1988): 481-505. The passage has been explained with reference to Jewish and other practices as well.
- ^ Frances Hickson Hahn, "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 236, citing also Michael C.J. Putnam, Horace's Carmen Saeculare (London, 2001), p. 133.
- ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide (Harvard University Press, 2004), p. 367.
- ^ J.B. Rives, "Magic in the XII Tables Revisited," Classical Quarterly 52:1 (2002) 288–289.
- ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi, p. 510.
- ^ Bernadotte Filotas, Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures in Early Medieval Pastoral Literature (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2005), p. 256.
- ^ Compare Sanskrit s'ista.
- ^ M. Morani"Lat. 'sacer'..." Aevum LV 1981 p. 38. Another etymology connects it to Vedic s'asti, 'he gives the instruction', and to Avestic saas-tu, 'that he educate': in G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974, Remarques preliminaires IX
- ^ Vergil, Aeneid, 6.661: "Sacerdotes casti dum vita manebat", in H. Fugier, Recherches... cit. p.18 ff.
- ^ See, for instance, mola salsa.
- ^ Anderson, W.C.F. (1890), "Toga", Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, London: John Murray.
- ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 7.612; Larissa Bonfante, "Ritual Dress," p. 185, and Fay Glinister, "Veiled and Unveiled: Uncovering Roman Influence in Hellenistic Italy," p. 197, both in Votives, Places, and Rituals in Etruscan Religion: Studies in Honor of Jean MacIntosh Turfa (Brill, 2009).
- ^ H.H. Scullard, A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC (Routledge, 1935, 2013), p. 409.
- ^ John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), p. 80.
- ^ Vergil's Aeneid, Book 5, §755.
- ^ Cicero, In Verrem 5.21.53.
- ^ Horace, Carmen 1.35, 17, 18; 3.24, 6, 6.
- ^ Praetor maximus, the chief magistrate with imperium; T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 21.
- ^ Festus, 49 in the edition of Wallace Lindsay, says that "the year-nail was so called because it was fixed into the walls of the sacred aedes every year, so that the number of years could be reckoned by means of them". [1]
- ^ Livy, 7.3; Brennan, Praetorship, p. 21.
- ^ Livy, 7.3.
- ^ The Fasti Capitolini record dictatores clavi figendi causa for 363, 331, and 263.
- ^ H.S. Versnel, Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (Brill, 1970), pp. 271–272.
- ^ Brennan, Praetorship, p. 21.
- ^ Cassius Dio 55.10.4, as cited by Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p. 108; Brennan, Praetorship, p. 21.
- ^ David S. Potter, "Roman Religion: Ideas and Action", in Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire (University of Michigan, 1999), pp. 139–140.
- ^ Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae XV 27, 1-3, citing Laelius Felix in reference to M. Antistius Labeo.
- ^ George Willis Botsford, The Roman Assemblies from Their Origin to the End of the Republic (Macmillan, 1909), pp. 155–165.
- ^ Botsford, Roman Assemblies, p. 153.
- ^ Botsford, Roman Assemblies, p. 154.
- ^ Botsford, Roman Assemblies, pp. 104, 154.
- ^ George Mousourakis, The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law (Ashgate, 2003), p. 105.
- ^ In the Fasti Viae Lanza.
- ^ As summarized by Jörg Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History, and the Fasti (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), pp. 26–27.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2245, note 387.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), pp. 228–229.
- ^ Cicero de Div. II 42
- ^ Festus, book 17, p. 819.
- ^ Serv. Dan. Aen. I 398
- ^ Livy, IV 31, 4; VIII 15, 6; XXIII 31, 13; XLI 18, 8.
- ^ Moses Hadas, A History of Latin Literature (Columbia University Press, 1952), p. 15 online.
- ^ C.O. Brink, Horace on Poetry. Epistles Book II: The Letters to Augustus and Florus (Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 64 online.
- ^ Cicero, De domo sua 136.
- ^ Wilfried Stroh, "De domo sua: Legal Problem and Structure", in Cicero the Advocate (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 341.
- ^ W.S. Teuffel, History of Roman Literature, translated by George C.W. Warr (London, 1900), vol. 1, p. 104 online.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985) 207–234, especially p. 216.
- ^ For example, Pliny, Natural History 18.14, in reference to the augurium canarium, a dog sacrifice. Other references include Cicero, Brutus 55 and De domo sua 186; Livy 4.3 and 6.1; Quintilian 8.2.12, as cited by Teuffel.
- ^ Linderski, "The libri reconditi", pp. 218–219.
- ^ Brink, Horace on Poetry, p. 64.
- ^ Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1991 reprint), p. 399 online.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), 2231–2233, 2238.
- ^ Greek stochasmos (στοχασμός); Tobias Reinhardt, "Rhetoric in the Fourth Academy", Classical Quarterly 50 (2000), p. 534. The Greek equivalent of conicere is symballein, from which English "symbol" derives; François Guillaumont, "Divination et prévision rationelle dans la correspondance de Cicéron," in Epistulae Antiquae: Actes du Ier Colloque "Le genre épistolaire antique et ses prolongements (Université François-Rabelais, Tours, 18-19 septembre 1998) (Peeters, 2002).
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2249 online.
- ^ Cicero, De domo sua 139; F. Sini, Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica (Sassari, 1983), p.152
- ^ Cicero. De domo sua 136.
- ^ J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung III (Leipzig, 1885), pp. 269 ff.; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer, p.385.
- ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2.8 and 1.117.
- ^ Clifford Ando, The Matter of the Gods (University of California Press, 2009), p. 6.
- ^ Ando, The Matter of the Gods, pp. 5–7; Valerie M. Warrior, Roman Religion (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 6; James B. Rives, Religion in the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 13, 23.
- ^ Augustine, De Civitate Dei 10.1; Ando, The Matter of the Gods, p. 6.
- ^ a b Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi" Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), pp. 218–219.
- ^ Sabine MacCormack, The Shadows of Poetry: Vergil in the Mind of Augustine (University of California Press, 1998), p. 75.
- ^ Clifford Ando, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2008), p. 110.
- ^ apud Nonius p. 792 L.
- ^ As recorded by Servius, ad Aen. II 225.
- ^ Festus De verborum significatu s.v. delubrum p. 64 L; G. Colonna "Sacred Architecture and the Religion of the Etruscans" in N. T. De Grummond The Religion of the Etruscans 2006 p. 165 n. 59.
- ^ Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 15.4.9; Stephen A. Barney, The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 310 online.
- Servius, note to Aeneid 2.156; Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2000), p. 44.
- ^ George Willis Botsford, The Roman Assemblies from Their Origin to the End of the Republic (Macmillan, 1909), pp. 161–162.
- ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 12.139.
- ^ David Wardle, "Deus or Divus: The Genesis of Roman Terminology for Deified Emperors and a Philosopher's Contribution", in Philosophy and Power in the Graeco-Roman World: Essays in Honour of Miriam Griffin (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 182.
- ^ Servius Aen. II 141: "pontifices dicunt singulis actibus proprios deos praeesse, hos Varro certos deos appellat", the pontiffs say that every single action is presided upon by its own deity, these Varro calls certain gods"; A. von Domaszewski, "Dii certi und incerti" in Abhandlungen fuer roemische Religion 1909 pp. 154-170.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion in Republican Rome: Rationalization and Ritual Change (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), p. 183.
- ^ As preserved by Augustine, De Civitate Dei VI 3.
- ^ Livy 8.9; for a brief introduction and English translation of the passage, see Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 157 online.
- ^ Carlos F. Noreña, Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 142.
- ^ C.E.V. Nixon, In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini (University of California Press, 1994), pp. 179–185; Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius To The Antonines (Methuen, 1974), originally published 1960 in Italian), p. 618. Paganism and Christianity, 100-425 C.E.: A Sourcebook edited by Ramsay MacMullen and Eugene N. Lane (Augsburg Fortress, 1992), p. 154; Roger S. Bagnall and Raffaella Cribiore, Women's Letters from Ancient Egypt 300 BC–AD 800 (University of Michigan Press, 2006), pp. 346–347.
- ^ Nixon, In Praise of Later Roman Emperors, p. 182.
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.16.36; William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), pp. 28, 42.
- ^ Vernaclus was buried by his father, Lucius Cassius Tacitus, in Colonia Ubii. Maureen Carroll, Spirits of the Dead: Roman Funerary Commemoration in Western Europe (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 172.
- ^ M. Golden, "Did the Ancients Care When Their Children Died?" Greece & Rome 35 (1988) 152–163.
- ^ Christian Laes, Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 66.
- ^ Jens-Uwe Krause, "Children in the Roman Family and Beyond," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 627.
- ^ Denis Feeney, Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History, University of California Press (2008) p. 148.
- ^ Feeney, Caesar's Calendar, pp. 148–149.
- ^ a b Feeney, Caesar's Calendar, p. 149.
- ^ Regina Gee, "From Corpse to Ancestor: The Role of Tombside Dining in the Transformation of the Body in Ancient Rome," in The Materiality of Death: Bodies, Burials, Beliefs, Bar International Series 1768 (Oxford, 2008), p. 64.
- ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005, 2006), p. 131.
- ^ Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p. 47.
- ^ Patricia Cox Miller, "'The Little Blue Flower Is Red': Relics and the Poeticizing of the Body," Journal of Early Christian Studies 8.2 (2000), p. 228.
- H.H. Scullard, Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic (Cornell University Press, 1981), p. 45.
- ^ Cicero, Ad Atticum 4.9.1; Festus 268 in the edition of Lindsay; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2187–2188.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History, and the Fasti, translated by David M.B. Richardson (Blackwell, 2011, originally published 1995 in German), pp. 151–152. The Fasti Maffeiani (= Degrassi, Inscriptiones Italiae 13.2.72) reads Dies vitios[us] ex s[enatus] c[onsulto], as noted by Rüpke, Kalender und Öffentlichkeit: Die Geschichte der Repräsentation und religiösen Qualifikation von Zeit in Rom (De Gruyter, 1995), p. 436, note 36. The designation is also found in the Fasti Praenestini.
- ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law," p. 2188.
- ^ Cassius Dio 51.19.3; Linderski, "The Augural Law," pp. 2187–2188.
- ^ Suetonius, Divus Claudius 11.3, with commentary by Donna W. Hurley, Suetonius: Divus Claudius (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 106.
- 69 (edition of Lindsay).
- ^ David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 178, 182; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2203.
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 59; Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), passim.
- ^ The phrase is Druidarum religionem ... dirae immanitatis ("the malevolent inhumanity of the religion of the druids"), where immanitas seems to be the opposite of humanitas as also evidenced among the Celts: Suetonius, Claudius 25, in the same passage containing one of the earliest mentions of Christianity as a threat.
- P.A. Brunt, Roman Imperial Themes (Oxford University Press, 1990, 2001), p. 485 online.
- Servius, note to Aeneid4.166.
- ^ Massimo Pallottino, "The Doctrine and Sacred Books of the Disciplina Etrusca", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), pp. 43–44.
- ^ Elizabeth Rawson, "Caesar, Etruria, and the Disciplina Etrusca", Journal of Roman Studies 68 (1978), p. 138.
- ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 5.45, also 12.139.
- ^ Servius is unclear as to whether Lucius Ateius Praetextatus or Gaius Ateius Capito is meant.
- ^ David Wardle, "Deus or Divus: The Genesis of Roman Terminology for Deified Emperors and a Philosopher's Contribution", in Philosophy and Power in the Graeco-Roman World (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 181–183.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 149 online.
- ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006), p. 479 online.
- ^ Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 1953, 2002), p. 414.
- ^ James R. Harrison, Paul's Language of Grace in Its Graeco-Roman Context (C.B. Mohr, 2003), p. 284. See Charites for the ancient Greek goddesses known as the Graces.
- ^ Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Beacon Press, 1963, 1991, originally published in German 1922), p. 82 online.
- ^ Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Oxford University Press, 2001 translation), p. 257 online.
- ^ Festus 146 (edition of Lindsay).
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2156–2157.
- ^ Daniel J. Gargola, Lands, Laws and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 27.
- ^ Linderski, "Augural Law," p. 2274.
- ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 41.
- ^ Nicholas Purcell, "On the Sacking of Corinth and Carthage", in Ethics and Rhetoric: Classical Essays for Donald Russell on His Seventy (Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 140–142.
- ^ Beard et al., Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook, pp. 41–42, with the passage from Livy, 5.21.1–7; Robert Turcan, The Cults of the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 1996, 2001, originally published in French 1992), p. 12; Robert Schilling, "Juno", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p 131.
- ^ Daniel J. Gargola, Lands, Laws, and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremonies in the Regulation of Public Lands in Republican Rome (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 30. Elizabeth Rawson expresses doubts as to whether the evocatio of 146 BC occurred as such; see "Scipio, Laelius, Furius and the Ancestral Religion", Journal of Roman Studies 63 (1973) 161–174.
- ^ Evidenced by an inscription dedicated by an imperator Gaius Servilius, probably at the vowed temple; Beard et al., Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook, p. 248.
- ^ As implied but not explicitly stated by Propertius, Elegy 4.2; Daniel P. Harmon, "Religion in the Latin Elegists", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.3 (1986), pp. 1960–1961.
- ^ Eric Orlin, Foreign Cults in Rome: Creating a Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 37–38.
- ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 254.
- ^ Arnaldo Momigliano, On Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Wesleyan University Press, 1987), p. 178; Greg Woolf, Becoming Roman: The Origins of Provincial Civilization in Gaul (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 214.
- ^ George Mousourakis, The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law (Ashgate, 2003), p. 339 online.
- ^ Daniel J. Gargola, Lands, Laws, and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 27; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2273.
- Servius, note to Aeneid2.351: "Pontifical law advises that unless Roman deities are called by their proper names, they cannot be exaugurated" (et iure pontificum cautum est, ne suis nominibus dii Romani appellarentur, ne exaugurari possint).
- ^ Livy 5.54.7; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.69.5; J. Rufus Fears, "The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.2 (1981), p. 848.
- ^ Clifford Ando, "Exporting Roman Religion," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 442.
- ^ Fay Glinister, "Sacred Rubbish," in Religion in Archaic and Republican Rome and Italy: Evidence and Experience (Edinburgh University Press, 2000), p. 66.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Fasti sacerdotum: A Prosopography of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Religious Officials in the City of Rome, 300 BC to AD 499 (Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 530, 753.
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 5, 6, quoting a passage from Veranius, De pontificalibus quaestionibus: eximias dictas hostias quae ad sacrificium destinatae eximantur e grege, vel quod eximia specie quasi offerendae numinibus eligantur.
- ^ F. SiniSua cuique civitati religio Torino 2001 p. 197
- ^ Cicero, De divinatione 2.12.29. According to Pliny (Natural History 11.186), before 274 BC the heart was not included among the exta.
- ^ Robert Schilling, "The Roman Religion", in Historia Religionum: Religions of the Past (Brill, 1969), vol. 1, pp. 471–472, and "Roman Sacrifice," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 79; John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003, originally published in French 1998), p. 84.
- ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 511.
- ^ Juvenal, Satire 2.110–114; Livy 37.9 and 38.18; Richard M. Crill, "Roman Paganism under the Antonines and Severans," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.2 (1976), p. 31.
- ^ Juvenal, Satire 4.123; Stephen L. Dyson, Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), pp. 228, 328; John E. Stambaugh, "The Functions of Roman Temples," ANRW II.16.2 (1976), p. 593; Robert Turcan, The Cults of the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 1992, 2001 printing), p. 41.
- Tacitus17.1: Fanaticus quidam in Templo Silvani tensis membris exclamavit, as cited by Peter F. Dorcey, The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion (Brill, 1992), p. 90, with some due skepticism toward the source.
- ^ CIL VI.490, 2232, and 2234, as cited by Stambaugh, "The Function of Roman Temples," p. 593, note 275.
- ^ Fanaticum agmen, Tacitus, Annales 14.30.
- ^ See for instance Cicero, De domo sua 105, De divinatione 2.118; and Horace's comparison of supposedly inspired poetic frenzy to the fanaticus error of religious mania (Ars Poetica 454); C.O. Brink, Horace on Poetry: Epistles Book II, The Letters to Augustus and Florus (Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 357; Marten Stol, Epilepsy in Babylonia (Brill, 1993), p. 121 online.
- ^ Fanatica dicitur arbor fulmine icta, apud Paulus, p. 92M.
- ^ Festus s.v. delubrum p. 64 M; G. Colonna "Sacred Architecture and the Religion of the Etruscans" in N. Thomas De Grummond The Religion of the Etruscans 2006 p. 165 n. 59
- ^ S. 53.1, CCSL 103:233–234, as cited by Bernadotte Filotas, Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures in Early Medieval Pastoral Literature (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2005), p. 68.
- ^ "What a thing is that, that when those trees to which people make vows fall, no one carries wood from them home to use on the hearth! Behold the wretchedness and stupidity of mankind: they show honour to a dead tree and despite the commands of the living God; they do not dare to put the branches of a tree into the fire and by an act of sacrilege throw themselves headlong into hell": Caesarius of Arles, S. 54.5, CCSL 103:239, as quoted and discussed by Filotas, Pagan Survivals, p. 146.
- templum.
- ^ Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult (University of Illinois Press, 2006), p. 150 online.
- ^ Fíísnú is the nominative form.
- postposition.
- ^ Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space, p. 150.
- ^ S.P. Oakley, A Commentary on Livy, Books 6–10 (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 378; Michel P.J. van den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto (Brill, 1999), p. 164.
- ^ Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 2.
- ^ Patrice Méniel, "Fanum and sanctuary," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), pp. 229, 733–734 online.
- ^ See Romano-Celtic Temple Bourton Grounds in Great-Britain Archived 2013-02-16 at the Wayback Machine and Romano-British Temples Archived 2012-09-07 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ T.F. Hoad, English Etymology, Oxford University Press 1993. p. 372a.
- ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 2.54; Nicholas Horsfall, Virgil, Aeneid 2: A Commentary (Brill, 2008), p. 91.
- ^ Horsfall, Virgil, Aeneid 2, p. 91.
- ^ Elisabeth Henry, The Vigour of Prophecy: A Study of Virgil's Aeneid (Southern Illinois University Press, 1989) passim.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "Founding the City," in Ten Years of the Agnes Kirsopp Lake Michels Lectures at Bryn Mawr College (Bryn Mawr Commentaries, 2006), p. 93.
- ^ R.L. Rike, Apex Omnium: Religion in the Res Gestae of Ammianus (University of California Press, 1987), p. 123.
- ^ Cynthia White, "The Vision of Augustus," Classica et Mediaevalia 55 (2004), p. 276.
- ^ Rike, Apex Omnium, pp. 122–123.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae 23.1.7, as cited by Rike, Apex Omnium, p. 122, note 57; Sarolta A. Takács, Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons: Women in Roman Religion (University of Texas Press, 2008), p. 68.
- Donatistdispute.
- ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Festivals," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 92. So too R. Orestano, "Dal ius al fas," Bullettino dell'Istituto di diritto romano 46 (1939), p. 244 ff., and I fatti di normazione nell 'esperienza romana arcaica (Turin 1967), p.106 ff.; A. Guarino, L'ordinamento giuridico romano (Naples 1980), p. 93; J. Paoli, Le monde juridique du paganisme romain p. 5; P. Catalano, Contributi allo studio del diritto augurale (Turin 1960), pp. 23 ff., 326 n. 10; C. Gioffredi, Diritto e processo nelle antiche forme giuridiche romane (Rome 1955), p. 25; B. Albanese, Premesse allo studio del diritto privat romano (Palermo 1978), p.127.
- ^ Valerie M. Warrior, Roman Religion, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p.160 [2]
- ^ Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p.113 online.
- Servius's note: "divina humanaque iura permittunt: nam ad religionem fas, ad hominem iura pertinunt". See also Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome: Religion in Everyday Life from Archaic to Imperial Times (Routledge, 2000), p.5 online. and discussion of the relationship between fas and ius from multiple scholarly perspectives by Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2203–04 online.
- ^ Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies, p. 92.
- Emile Benvenistederives fas, as a form of divine speech, from the IE root *bhā (as cited by Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies, p. 93, note 4).
- ^ Varro, De Lingua Latina, 6.29, because on dies fasti the courts are in session and political speech may be practiced freely. Ovid pursues the connection between the dies fasti and permissible speech (fas est) in his calendrical poem the Fasti; see discussion by Carole E. Newlands, Playing with Time: Ovid and the Fasti (Cornell Studies in Classical Philology, 1995), p. 175 online.
- , Technopaegnion 8, and de diis 1. For the scholarship, see U. Coli, "Regnum" in Studia et documenta historiae et iuris 17 1951; C. Ferrini "Fas" in Nuovo Digesto Italiano p. 918; C. Gioffredi, Diritto e processo nelle antiche forme giuridiche romane (Roma 1955) p. 25 n.1; H. Fugier, Recherches sur l' expression du sacre' dans la langue latine (Paris 1963), pp. 142 ff.; G. Dumezil, La religion romaine archaique (Paris 1974), p. 144.
- ^ H. Fugier Recherches sur l'expression du sacre' dans la langue latine Paris, 1963
- ^ W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York 1963 sv felicity, feminine
- ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Feria". Newadvent.org. 1909-09-01. Retrieved 2022-08-27.
- ^ G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris 1974 part IV chapt. 2; Camillus: a study of Indo-European religion as Roman history (University of California Press, 1980), p. 214 online, citing Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.16.2.
- ^ Livy I.18.9; Varro, De lingua latina V.143, VI.153, VII.8-9; Aulus Gellius XIII.14.1 (on the pomerium); Festus p. 488 L, tesca.
- ^ Joseph Rykwert, The Idea of a Town: The Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World (MIT Press, 1988, originally published 1976), pp. 106–107, 126–127; Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer (Munich 1912) 2nd pp. 136 ff.; G. Dumezil, La religion romaine archaique (Paris 1974) 2nd, pp. 210 ff.; Varro, De lingua latina V.21; Isidore, Origines XV.14.3; Paulus, Fest. epit. p. 505 L; Ovid, Fasti II 639 ff.
- ^ Discussion and citation of ancient sources by Steven J. Green, Ovid, Fasti 1: A Commentary (Brill, 2004), pp. 159–160 online.
- ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 1.334.
- Fasti1.336; victima quae dextra cecidit victrice vocatur ("the victim which is killed by the victor's right hand is named [from that act]"), 1.335.
- ^ a b Char. 403.38.
- ^ Macrobius Sat. VI 9, 5-7; Varro Ling. Lat. V
- ^ Macrobius Sat. VI 9, 7; Festus s.v. bidentes p.33 M
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 5, 1 ff.
- ^ Nathan Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi: Military Defeat and Aristocratic Competition in the Middle and Late Republic (University of California Press, 1990), p. 64.
- ^ Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001; originally published in French 1998), p. 9.
- ^ Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 39.
- ^ Veranius, Iur. 7: praesentanaea porca dicitur ... quae familiae purgandae causa Cereris immolatur, quod pars quaedam eius sacrificii fit in conspectu mortui eius, cuius funus instituitur.
- ^ Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae IV 6, 3-10 for hostia succidanea and praecidanea; also Festus p. 250 L. s. v. praecidanea hostia; Festus p. 298 L. s.v. praesentanea hostia. Gellius's passage implies a conceptual connexion between the hostia praecidanea and the feriae succidaneae, though this is not explicated. Scholarly interpretations thus differ on what the feriae praecidaneae were: cf. A. Bouché-Leclercq Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines III Paris 1898 s. v Inauguratio p. 440 and n. 1; G. Wissowa Religion und Kultus der Römer München 1912 p.438 f.; L. Schmitz in W. Smith A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London 1875 s. v. feriae; P. Catalano Contributi allo studio del diritto augurale Torino 1960 p. 352.
- Dionysius HalicarnassusII 22,3.
- ^ Livy XXVII 36, 5; XL 42, 8-10; Aulus Gellius XV 17, 1
- ^ Gaius I 130; III 114; Livy XXVII 8,4; XLI 28, 7; XXXVII 47, 8; XXIX 38, 6;XLV 15,19; Macrobius II 13, 11;
- ^ Cicero, Brutus 1; Livy XXVII 36, 5; XXX 26, 10; Dionysius Halicarnassus II 73, 3.
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1908), p. 89.
- ^ In particular, Book 14 of the non-extant Antiquitates rerum divinarum; see Lipka, Roman Gods, pp. 69–70.
- ^ W.R. Johnson, "The Return of Tutunus", Arethusa (1992) 173–179; Fowler, Religious Experience, p. 163. Wissowa, however, asserted that Varro's lists were not indigitamenta, but di certi, gods whose function could still be identified with certainty; Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (unknown edition), vol. 13, p. 218 online. See also Kurt Latte, Roemische Religionsgeschichte (Munich, 1960), pp. 44-45.
- ^ Lactantius, Div. inst. 1.6.7; Censorinus 3.2; Arnaldo Momigliano, "The Theological Efforts of the Roman Upper Classes in the First Century B.C.", Classical Philology 79 (1984), p. 210.
- ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 513.
- ^ Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion", Numen 46 (1999), pp. 44–45; Frances Hickson Hahn, "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 240; Nicole Belayche, "Religious Actors in Daily Life: Practices and Shared Beliefs", in A Companion to Roman Religion, p. 279.
- paratactically.
- ^ Gábor Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus: Cosmology, Theology and Interpretation (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 137.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2253
- ^ Luck, Arcana Mundi, pp. 497, 498.
- ^ Pausanias gave specific examples in regard to Poseidon (7.21.7); Claude Calame, "The Homeric Hymns as Poetic Offerings: Musical and Ritual Relationships with the Gods," in The Homeric Hymns: Interpretive Essays (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 338.
- ^ A. Berger Encyclopedical Dictionary of Roman Law Philadelphia 1968 sv. ius
- ^ Inst. 2, 2 ap. Dig. 1, 8, 1: Summa itaque rerum divisio in duos articulos diducitur: nam aliae sunt divini iuris, aliae humani, 'thus the highest division of things is reduced into two articles:some belong to divine right, some to human right'.
- ^ F.Sini Bellum nefandum Sassari 1991 p. 110
- ^ In Festus: ...iudex atque arbiter habetur rerum divinarum humanarumque: 'he is considered to be the judge and arbiter of things divine and human'... his authority stems from his regal (originally king Numa's) investiture. F. Sini Bellum nefandum Sassari 1991 p. 108 ff. R. Orestano Dal ius al fas p.201.
- ^ Ulpian Libr. I regularum ap. Digesta 1, 1, 10, 2: Iuris prudentia est divinarum atque humanrum rerum notitia, iusti atque iniusti scientia
- ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 105.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 130, citing Gaius, Institutes 2.1–9.
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 122ff.
- ^ W.W. Skeat, Etymological dictionary of the English Language entries on legal, legion, diligent, negligent, religion.
- Ab Urbe Condita, 1.24.7, Jupiter is called on to hear the oath.
- ^ Serv. in Aen. III, 89: legum here is understood as the uttering of a set of fixed, binding conditions.
- ^ M. Morani "Lat. 'sacer'..." Aevum LV 1981 p. 38 n.22
- ^ For example, those dated to 58 BC, relating to the temple of Jupiter Liber at Furfo: CIL IX 3513
- ^ G. Dumezil la religion romaine archaic Paris, 1974.
- ^ P. Noailles RH 19/20 (1940/41) 1, 27 ff; A. Magdelain De la royauté et du droit des Romaines (Rome, 1995) chap. II, III
- ^ Paul Veyne, The Roman Empire (Harvard University Press, 1987), p. 213.
- ^ H.S. Versnel, Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), pp. 62–63.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2156–2157, 2248.
- ^ F. Sini Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica Sassari, 1983; S. Tondo Leges regiae e paricidas Firenze, 1973; E. Peruzzi Origini di Roma II
- ^ Francesco Sini, Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica. I. Libri e documenti Sassari, 1983, IV, 10, p. 175 ff.
- ^ Cicero, De Legibus ("On Laws"), 2, 21.
- ^ M. Van Den Bruwaene, "Precison sur la loi religieuse du de leg. II, 19-22 de Ciceron" in Helikon 1 (1961) p.89.
- ^ F. Sini Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica I. Libri e commentari Sassari 1983 p. 22; S. Tondo Leges regiae e paricidas Firenze, 1973, p.20-21; R. Besnier "Le archives privees publiques et religieuses a' Rome au temps des rois" in Studi Albertario II Milano 1953 pp.1 ff.; L. Bickel "Lehrbuch der Geschichte der roemischen Literatur" p. 303; G. J. Szemler The priests of the Roman Republic Bruxelles 1972.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), pp. 149–150.
- ^ Livy 41.14–15.
- ^ a b Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 79 online.
- ^ Paulus Festi epitome p. 57 L s.v. capitalis lucus
- ISBN 1584771429.
- ^ CIL I 2nd 366; XI 4766; CIL I2 401, IX 782; R. Del Ponte, "Santità delle mura e sanzione divina" in Diritto e Storia 3 2004.
- ^ W.W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York 1973 s.v. lustration
- ^ Stefan Weinstock, "Libri fulgurales," Papers of the British School at Rome 19 (1951), p. 125.
- ^ Weinstock, p. 125.
- ^ Seneca, Naturales Questiones 2.41.1.
- ^ Massimo Pallottino, "The Doctrine and Sacred Books of the Disciplina Etrusca," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 44.
- Servius, note to Aeneid1.42, as cited and discussed by Weinstock, p. 125ff. Noted also by Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint, originally published 1883), p. 845, note 54.
- ^ Pallottino, "Doctrine and Sacred Books," p. 44.
- ^ Weinstock, p. 127. See also The Religion of the Etruscans, pp. 40–41, where an identification of the dii involuti with the Favores Opertaneii ("Secret Gods of Favor") referred to by Martianus Capella is proposed.
- ^ Georges Dumézil, La religion romaine archaïque (Paris 1974), pp. 630 and 633 (note 3), drawing on Seneca, NQ 2.41.1–2 and 39.
- ^ Pallottino, "Doctrine and Sacred Books", pp. 43–44.
- T.P. Wiseman, "History, Poetry, and Annales", in Clio and the Poets: Augustan Poetry and the Traditions of Ancient Historiography (Brill, 2002), p. 359 "awe and amazement are the result, not the cause, of the miraculum.
- ^ Livy 1.39.
- ^ George Williamson, "Mucianus and a Touch of the Miraculous: Pilgrimage and Tourism in Roman Asia Minor", in Seeing the Gods: Pilgrimage in Graeco-Roman and Early Christian Antiquity (Oxford University Press, 2005, 2007), p. 245 online.
- ^ Ariadne Staples, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion (Routledge, 1998), pp. 154–155.
- ^ Servius, note to Eclogue 8.82:
- ^ Fernando Navarro Antolín, Lygdamus. Corpus Tibullianum III.1–6: Lygdami Elegiarum Liber (Brill, 1996), pp. 272–272 online.
- ^ David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 102.
- ^ Philip R. Hardie, Virgil: Aeneid, Book IX (Cambridge University Press, 1994, reprinted 2000), p. 97.
- ^ Mary Beagon, "Beyond Comparison: M. Sergius, Fortunae victor", in Philosophy and Power in the Graeco-Roman World: Essays in Honour of Miriam Griffin (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 127.
- ^ a b As cited by Wardle, Cicero on Divination, p. 330.
- ^ Beagon, "Beyond Comparison", in Philosophy and Power, p. 127.
- ^ Michèle Lowrie, Horace's Narrative Odes (Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 151–154.
- ^ Cicero, In Catilinam 2.1.
- ^ Gregory A. Staley, Seneca and the Idea of Tragedy (Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 80, 96, 109, 113 et passim.
- ^ L. Banti; G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaïque Paris 1974, It. tr. p. 482-3.
- ^ M. Humm, "Le mundus et le Comitium : représentations symboliques de l'espace de la cité," Histoire urbaine, 2, 10, 2004. French language, full preview.
- ^ Dies religiosi were marked by the gods as inauspicious, so in theory, no official work should have been done, but it was not a legally binding religious the rule. G. Dumézil above.
- ^ Festus p. 261 L2, citing Cato's commentaries on civil law. An inscription at Capua names a sacerdos Cerialis mundalis (CIL X 3926). For the connection between deities of agriculture and the underworld, see W. Warde Fowler, "Mundus Patet" in Journal of Roman Studies, 2, (1912), pp. 25–33
- ^ A. Guarino L'ordinamento giuridico romano Napoli, 1980, p. 93.
- ISBN 978-0-415-07250-2pp17-18.
- ^ Festus p. 424 L: At homo sacer is est, quem populus iudicavit ob maleficium; neque fas est eum immolari, sed qui occidit, parricidi non damnatur.
- Ab Urbe Condita, 4.3.9.
- ^ Paul Roche, Lucan: De Bello Civili, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 296.
- .
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007), p. 275, noting that he finds Servius's distinction "artificial."
- ^ Fernando Navarro Antolin, Lygdamus: Corpus Tibullianum III.1–6, Lygdami Elegiarum Liber (Brill, 1996), p. 127–128.
- ^ Martial, 4.64.17, as cited by Robert Schilling, "Anna Perenna," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 112.
- ^ Stephen L. Dyson, Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), p. 147.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2159–2160, 2168, et passim.
- '^ S.W. Rasmussen, Public Portents in Republican Rome online.
- ^ W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (University of North Carolina Press, 1999) p. 127.
- ^ Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp 109-10.
- ^ J.P.V.D. Balsdon, "Roman History, 58–56 B.C.: Three Ciceronian Problems", Journal of Roman Studies 47 (1957) 16–16.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2232–2234, 2237–2241.
- ^ The etymology is debated. The older Latin form is osmen", which may have meant "an utterance"; see W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language sv omen New York 1963. It has also been connected to an ancient Hittite exclamation ha ("it's true"); see R. Bloch Les prodiges dans l'antiquite' - Rome Paris 1968; It. tr. Rome 1978 p. 74, and E. Benveniste "Hittite et Indo-Europeen. Etudes comparatives" in Bibl. arch. et hist. de l'Institut francais a, Arch. de Stambul V, 1962, p.10.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), p. 231–232.
- ^ Both are mentioned by Macrobius, Saturnalia 3.20.3 and 3.7.2; Nancy Thomson de Grummond, "Introduction: The History of the Study of Etruscan Religion", in The Religion of the Etruscans (University of Texas Press, 2006), p. 2.
- ^ Pliny, Natural History 10.6–42.
- ^ Ex Tarquitianis libris in titulo "de rebus divinis": Ammianus Marcellinus XXV 27.
- ^ Robert Schilling, "The Disciplina Etrusca", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 44.
- ^ Wardle, Cicero on Divination, p. 330; Auguste Bouché-Leclerq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité (Jérôme Millon, 2003, originally published 1882), pp. 873–874 online.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2150 and 2230–2232; see Cicero, De Divinatione, 1.72 and 2.49.
- ^ Festus rationalises the order: the rex is "the most powerful" of priests, the Flamen Dialis is "sacerdos of the entire universe", the Flamen Martialis represents Mars as the parent of Rome's founder Romulus, and the Flamen Quirinalis represents the Roman principle of shared sovereignty. The Pontifex Maximus "is considered the judge and arbiter of things both divine and human": Festus, p. 198-200 L
- ^ H.S. Versnel, Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), p. 158, especially note 104.
- ^ De lingua latina 7.37.
- ^ Festus, p. 291 L, citing Veranius (1826 edition of Dacier, p. 1084 online); R. Del Ponte, "Documenti sacerdotali in Veranio e Granio Flacco," Diritto e Storia 4 (2005).[3]
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "Q. Scipio Imperator," in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 168; Jonathan Edmondson and Alison Keith, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 12.
- ^ Fred K. Drogula, "Imperium, potestas and the pomerium in the Roman Republic," Historia 56.4 (2007), pp. 436–437.
- ^ Christoph F. Konrad, "Vellere signa," in Augusto augurio: rerum humanarum et divinarum commentationes in honorem Jerzy Linderski (Franz Steiner, 2004), p. 181; see Cicero, Second Verrine 5.34; Livy 21.63.9 and 41.39.11.
- ^ Festus 439L, as cited by Versnel, Inconsistencies, p. 158 online.
- ^ Thomas N. Habinek, The World of Roman Song: From Ritualized Speech to Social Order (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), p. 256.
- ^ The noun derives from the past participle of pacisci to agree, to come to an agreement, allied to pactus, past participle of verb pangere to fasten or tie. Compare Sanskrit pac to bind, and Greek peegnumi, I fasten: W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language s.v. peace, pact
- ^ As in Plautus, Mercator 678; Lucretius, De rerum natura V, 1227; Livy III 5, 14.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 81 online.
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 191.
- Robert E.A. Palmer, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464 L, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 99, note 129 online; Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult (University of Illinois Press, 2006), p. 122 online.
- ^ Livy 8.9.1–11.
- Proto-Italicit has given ii with a long first i as in pii-: cfr. G. L. Bakkum The Latin Dialect of the Ager Faliscus: 150 Years of Scholarship p. 57 n. 34 quoting Meiser 1986 pp.37-38.
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 462.
- ^ Gerard Mussies, "Cascelia's Prayer," in La Soteriologia dei culti orientali nell' impero romano (Brill, 1982), p. 160.
- ^ Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Horace and Vergil," in Studies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), pp. 82–83.
- ^ M. Morani "Latino Sacer..." In Aevum 1981 LV.
- ^ Varro Lingua Latina V 15, 83; G. Bonfante "Tracce di terminologia palafitticola nel vocabolario latino?" Atti dell' Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere e Arti 97 (1937: 53-70)
- ^ K. Latte Römische Religionsgeschichte, Munich 1960 p. 400-1; H. Fugier Recherches sur l'expression du sacré dans la langue latine Paris 1963 pp.161-172.
- ^ First proposed by F. Ribezzo in "Pontifices 'quinionalis sacrificii effectores', Rivista indo-greco-italica di Filologia-Lingua-Antichità 15 1931 p. 56.
- ^ For a review of the proposed hypotheses cfr. J. P. Hallet "Over Troubled Waters: The Meaning of the Title Pontifex" in Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 101 1970 p. 219 ff.
- ^ Marietta Horster, "Living on Religion: Professionals and Personnel", in A Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 332–334.
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 2, 3- 4: R. Del Ponte, "Documenti sacerdotali in Veranio e Granio Flacco" in Diritto estoria, 4, 2005.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2232, 2247.
- ^ Claude Moussy, "Signa et portenta", in Donum grammaticum: Studies in Latin and Celtic Linguistics in Honour of Hannah Rosén (Peeters, 2002), p. 269 online.
- ^ Pliny, Natural History 11.272, Latin text at LacusCurtius; Mary Beagon, Roman Nature: The Thought of Pliny the Elder (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 146.
- ^ Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité: Divination hellénique et divination italique (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint), pp. 873–874.
- ^ Blandine Cuny-Le Callet, Rome et ses monstres: Naissance d'un concept philosophique et rhétorique (Jérôme Millon, 2005), p. 48, with reference to Fronto.
- ^ For instance, Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), pp. 43 and 98. Despite its title, S.W. Rasmussen's Public Portents in Republican Rome (L'Erma, Bretschneider, 2003) does not distinguish among prodigium, omen, portentum and ostentum (p. 15, note 9).
- ^ Augustine, De civitate Dei 21.8: Portentum ergo fit non contra naturam, sed contra quam est nota natura ("therefore a portent does not occur contrary to nature, but contrary to what is known of nature"). See Michael W. Herren and Shirley Ann Brown, Christ in Celtic Christianity (Boydell Press, 2002), p. 163.
- ^ Pliny, Natural History 28.11, as cited by Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion", Numen 46 (1999), p. 15.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2246.
- ^ A.A. Barb, "Animula Vagula Blandula ... Notes on Jingles, Nursery-Rhymes and Charms with an Excursus on Noththe's Sisters", Folklore 61 (1950), p. 23; Maarten J. Vermaseren and Carel C. van Essen, The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Prisca on the Aventine (Brill, 1965), pp. 188–191.
- ^ W.S. Teuffel, History of Roman Literature (London, 1900, translation of the 5th German edition), vol. 1, p. 547.
- ^ Pliny, Natural History 28.19, as cited by Nicole Belayche, "Religious Actors in Daily Life", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 287.
- ^ Linderski, "The Augural Law", pp. 2252–2256.
- ^ Steven M. Cerutti, Cicero's Accretive Style: Rhetorical Strategies in the Exordia of the Judicial Speeches (University Press of America, 1996), passim; Jill Harries, Law and Empire in Late Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 36.
- ^ Fritz Graf, "Prayer in Magic and Religious Ritual", in Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion (Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 189.
- ^ Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 77.
- ^ Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006), p. 515.
- ^ Dirae is used by Tacitus (Annales 14.30) to describe the preces uttered by the druids against the Romans at Anglesey.
- Emile Benveniste (Le vocabulaire, p. 404) quaeso would mean "I use the appropriate means to obtain"; in the interpretation of Morani,[citation needed] quaeso means "I wish to obtain, try and obtain", while precor designates the utterance of the adequate words to achieve one's aim.
- ^ Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1991 reprint), p. 648; Detlef Liebs, "Roman Law", in The Cambridge Ancient History. Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425-600 (Cambridge University Press, 2000), vol. 15, p. 243.
- ^ Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, reprinted 2002), p. 103 online.
- ^ Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 60.
- ^ R. Bloch ibidem p. 96
- ^ Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 297.
- ^ Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 295 - 8: the task fell to the haruspex, who set the child to drown in the sea. The survival of such a child for four years after birth would have been regarded as extreme dereliction of religious duty.
- ^ Livy, 27.37.5–15; the hymn was composed by the poet Livius Andronicus. Cited by Halm, in Rüpke (ed) 244. For remainder, see Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 297.
- ^ See Livy, 22.1 ff.
- ^ For Livy's use of prodigies and portents as markers of Roman impiety and military failure, see Feeney, in Rüpke (ed), 138 - 9. For prodigies in the context of political decision-making, see Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 295 - 8. See also R. Bloch Les prodiges dans l'antiquite'-Les prodiges a Rome It. transl. 1981, chap. 1, 2
- ^ Dennis Feeney, in Jörg Rüpke, (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. p.140.
- ^ Festus s. v. praepetes aves p. 286 L "aves quae se ante auspicantem ferunt" "who go before the a.", 224 L "quia secundum auspicium faciant praetervolantes...aut ea quae praepetamus indicent..." "since they make the auspice favourable by flying nearby...or point to what we wish for...". W. W. Skeat An Etymological Dictionary of the English language s. v. propitious New York 1963 (reprint).
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), pp. 265–266; Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 40.
- ^ Charlotte Long, The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome (Brill, 1987), pp. 235–236.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2180, and in the same volume, G.J. Szemler, "Priesthoods and Priestly Careers in Ancient Rome," p. 2322.
- ^ Clifford Ando, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2008), p. 126.
- ^ Cicero, De natura deorum 2.8.
- ^ Ando, The Matter of the Gods, p. 13.
- ^ Nicole Belayche, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p. 279: "Care for the gods, the very meaning of religio, had [therefore] to go through life, and one might thus understand why Cicero wrote that religion was "necessary". Religious behavior – pietas in Latin, eusebeia in Greek – belonged to action and not to contemplation. Consequently religious acts took place wherever the faithful were: in houses, boroughs, associations, cities, military camps, cemeteries, in the country, on boats."
- ^ CIL VII.45 = ILS 4920.
- ^ Jack N. Lightstone, "Roman Diaspora Judaism," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 360, 368.
- ^ Adelaide D. Simpson, "Epicureans, Christians, Atheists in the Second Century," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 72 (1941) 372–381.
- ^ Beard et al., Vol. 1, 217.
- ^ F. De Visscher "Locus religiosus" Atti del Congresso internazionale di Diritto Romano, 3, 1951
- ^ Warde Fowler considers a possible origin for sacer in taboos applied to holy or accursed things or places, without direct reference to deities and their property. W. Warde Fowler "The Original Meaning of the Word Sacer" Journal of Roman Studies, I, 1911, p.57-63
- ^ Varro. LL V, 150. See also Festus, 253 L: "A place was once considered to become religiosus which looked to have been dedicated to himself by a god": "locus statim fieri putabatur religiosus, quod eum deus dicasse videbatur".
- De natura deorum2.3.82 and 2.28.72; Ittai Gradel, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 4-6.
- ^ Massimo Pallottino, "Sacrificial Cults and Rites in Pre-Roman Italy," in Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p.33.
- ^ Clifford Ando, "Religion and ius publicum," in Religion and Law in Classical and Christian Rome (Franz Steiner, 2006), pp. 140–142.
- ^ Gian Biagio Conte, Latin Literature: A History (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994, originally published 1987 in Italian), p. 213.
- ^ Herbert Vorgrimler, Sacramental Theology (Patmos, 1987, 1992), p. 45.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 223 online.
- ^ Festus on the ordo sacerdotum, 198 in the edition of Lindsay.
- ^ Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005), p. 136 online.
- ^ Festus, entry on ritus, p. 364 (edition of Lindsay): ritus est est mos comprobatus in administrandis sacrificis. See also the entry on ritus from Paulus, Festi Epitome, p. 337 (Lindsay), where he defines ritus as mos or consuetudo, "customary use", adding that rite autem significat bene ac recte. See also Varro De Lingua Latina II 88; Cicero De Legibus II 20 and 21.
- ^ G. Dumézil ARR It. tr. Milan 1977 p. 127 citing A. Bergaigne La religion védique III 1883 p. 220.
- ^ Jean-Louis Durand, John Scheid Rites et religion. Remarques sur certains préjugés des historiens de la religions des Grecs et des Romains" in Archives des sciences sociales des religions 85 1994 pp. 23-43 part. pp. 24-25.
- ^ John Scheid, "Graeco Ritu: A Typically Roman Way of Honoring the Gods", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 97, Greece in Rome: Influence, Integration, 1995, pp. 15–31.
- ^ Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 7.12.5, discounting the etymology proffered by Gaius Trebatius in his lost work On Religions (as sacer and cella).
- Varro, Res Divinae frg. 62 in the edition of Cardauns.
- ^ Verrius Flaccus as cited by Festus, p. 422.15–17 L.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), pp. 183–185.
- Dionysius HalicarnassusII 64, 3.
- ^ Varro, De res rustica, 2.1., describes porci sacres (pigs considered sacer and thus reserved for sacrifice) as necessarily "pure" (or perfect); "porci puri ad sacrificium".
- ^ M. Morani "Lat. sacer...cit. p. 41. See also Festus. p. 414 L2 & p.253 L: Gallus Aelius ait sacrum esse quodcumque modo atque instituto civitatis consecratum est, sive aedis sive ara sive signum, locum sive pecunia, sive aliud quod dis dedicatum atque consecratum sit; quod autem privati suae religionis causa aliquid earum rerum deo dedicent, id pontifices Romanos non existimare sacrum: "Gallus Aelius says that sacer is anything made sacred (consecratum) in any way or by any institution of the community, be it a building or an altar or a sign, a place or money, or anything that else can be dedicated to the gods; the Roman pontiffs do not consider sacer any things dedicated to a god in private religious cult."
- Ab Urbe Condita, 22.10. For the archaic variant, see G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974, Considerations preliminaires
- ^ F. De Visscher "Locus religiosus" Atti del Congresoo internazionale di Diritto Romano, 3, 1951
- ^ Warde Fowler considers a possible origin for sacer in the taboos applied to things or places holy or accursed without direct reference to deities and their property. W. Warde Fowler "The Original Meaning of the Word Sacer" Journal of Roman Studies, I, 1911, p.57-63
- ^ As in Horace, Sermones II 3, 181,
- ^ As in Servius, Aeneid VI, 609: Dionysius of Halicarnassus, II 10, 3; Festus 505 L.
- ^ Festus, p422 L: "homo sacer is est quem populus iudicavit ob maleficium; neque fas est eum imolari, sed qui occidit, parricidii non damnatur". For further discussion on the homo sacer in relation to the plebeian tribunes, see Ogilvie, R M, A Commentary on Livy 1-5, Oxford, 1965.
- ^ H. Bennet Sacer esto.. thinks that the person declared sacred was originally sacrificed to the gods. This hypothesis seems to be supported by Plut. Rom. 22, 3 and Macr. Sat.III, 7, 5, who compare the homo sacer to the victim in a sacrifice. The prerogative of declaring somebody sacer supposedly belonged to the king during the regal era; during the Republic, this right passed to the pontiff and courts.
- ^ G. Devoto Origini Indoeuropee (Firenze, 1962), p. 468
- ^ John Scheid, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), p. 129.
- ^ Scheid, Introduction to Roman Religion, pp. 129–130.
- ^ Lesley E. Lundeen, "In Search of the Etruscan Priestess: A Re-Examination of the hatrencu," in Religion in Republican Italy (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 46; Celia E. Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic (University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 70–71.
- ^ Varro. De Lingua Latina VI 24; Festus sv Septimontium p. 348, 340, 341L; Plut. Quest. Rom. 69
- ^ Festus sv Publica sacra; Dionys. Hal. II 21, 23; Appian. Hist. Rom. VIII 138; de Bello Civ. II 106; Plut. Quaest. Rom. 89; Christopher John Smith, The Roman Clan: The gens from Ancient Ideology to Modern Anthropology (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 44.
- ^ Plutarch Numa 14, 6-7 gives a list of Numa's ritual prescriptions: obligation of sacrificing an uneven number of victims to the heavenly gods and an even one to the inferi (cf. Serv. Ecl. 5, 66; Serv. Dan. Ecl. 8, 75; Macrobius I 13,5); the prohibition to make libations to the gods with wine; of sacrificing without flour; the obligation to pray and worship divinities while making a turn on oneselves (Livy V 21,16; Suetonius Vit. 2); the composition of the indigitamenta (Arnobius Adversus nationes II 73, 17-18).
- ^ Livy I, 20; Dion. Hal. II
- Segetia, Tutilinarequired the observance of a dies feriatus of the person involved.
- ^ Cic. de Leg. II 1, 9-21; Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 44.
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 86.
- Robert E.A. Palmer, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996),
- ^ Liv. V 46; XXII 18; Dionys. Hal. Ant. Rom. IX 19; Cic. Har. Resp. XV 32; Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 43ff.; Smith, The Roman Clan, p. 46.
- ^ Mommsen thought, perhaps wrongly, that the Julian sacra for Apollo was in fact a sacrum publicum entrusted to a particular gens. Mommsen Staatsrecht III 19; G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaique It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 475
- ^ Festus, p. 274 (edition of Lindsay); Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001; originally published in French 1998), p. 44; Smith, The Roman Clan, p. 45.
- ^ Legal questions might arise about the extent to which the inheritance of property was or ought to be attached to the sacra; Andrew R. Dyck, A Commentary on Cicero, De Legibus (University of Michigan Press, 2004), pp. 381–382, note on an issue raised at De legibus 2.48a.
- ^ Cicero, De legibus 2.1.9-21; Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 44.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 26.
- ^ Festus 146 in the edition of Lindsay.
- ^ Olivier de Cazanove, "Pre-Roman Italy, Before and Under the Romans," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 55.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Domi Militiae: Die religiöse Konstruktion des Krieges in Rom (Franz Steiner, 1990), pp. 76–80.
- ^ D. Briquel "Sur les aspects militaires du dieu ombrien Fisus Sancius" in Revue de l' histoire des religions[full citation needed] i p. 150-151; J. A. C. Thomas A Textbook of Roman law Amsterdam 1976 p. 74 and 105.
- ^ Varro De Lingua latina V 180; Festus s.v. sacramentum p. 466 L; 511 L; Paulus Festi Epitome p.467 L.
- ^ George Mousourakis, A Legal History of Rome (Routledge, 2007), p. 33.
- ^ Mousourakis, A Legal History of Rome, pp. 33, 206.
- ^ See further discussion at fustuarium
- ^ Gladiators swore to commit their bodies to the possibility of being "burned, bound, beaten, and slain by the sword"; Petronius, Satyricon 117; Seneca, Epistulae 71.32.
- ^ Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 14–16, 35 (note 88), 42, 45–47.
- ^ Apuleius, Metamorphoses 11.15.5; Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion," in Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981)
- ^ Arnaldo Momigliano, Quinto contributo alla storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico (Storia e letteratura, 1975), vol. 2, pp. 975–977; Luca Grillo, The Art of Caesar's Bellum Civile: Literature, Ideology, and Community (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 60.
- ^ Ulpian, Digest I.8.9.2: sacrarium est locus in quo sacra reponuntur.
- ^ Ittai Gradel, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 10.
- Robert E. A. Palmer, The Archaic Community of the Romans, p. 171, note 1.
- ^ R.P.H. Green, "The Christianity of Ausonius," Studia Patristica: Papers Presented at the Eleventh International Conference on Patristic Studies Held in Oxford 1991 (Peeters, 1993), vol. 28, pp. 39 and 46; Kim Bowes, "'Christianization' and the Rural Home," Journal of Early Christian Studies 15.2 (2007), pp. 143–144, 162.
- ^ Built of Living Stones: Art, Architecture, and Worship: Guidelines (United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, 2005), p. 73. See also Wolfred Nelson Cote, The Archaeology of Baptism (Lond, 1876), p. 138.
- ^ M. Morani, Latino sacer... Aevum LV 1981 p. 40, citing Livy 3.19.10.
- ^ Compare Lithuanian iung-iu from IE stem *yug.
- ^ H. Fugier, Recherches sur l'expression du sacre' dans la langue latine Paris 1963; E. Benveniste Le vocubulaire des institutions indoeuropeenees Paris 1939, p. 427 ff.
- ^ As inquio>incio: P.Krestchmer in Glotta 1919, X, p. 155
- ^ H. Fugier, Recherches, pp. 125 ff; E. Benveniste, Le vocabulaire, pp. 427 ff.; K. Latte Roemische Religionsgeshichte Muenchen 1960 p.127 ff.; D. Briquel "Sur les aspects militaires du dieu Ombrien Fisius Sancius" Paris 1978
- ^ Ulpian Digest 1.8.9: dicimus sancta, quae neque sacra neque profana sunt.
- ^ G. DumezilLa religion Romaine archaique It. transl. Milano 1977 p. 127; F. Sini "Sanctitas: cose, uomini, dei" in Sanctitas. Persone e cose da Roma a Costantinopoli a Mosca Roma 2001; Cic. de Nat. Deor. III 94; Festus sv tesca p. 488L
- ^ Gaius, following Aelius Gallus: inter sacrum autem et sanctum et religiosum differentias bellissime refert [Gallus]: sacrum aedificium, consecrato deo; sanctum murum, qui sit circa oppidum. See also Marcian, Digest 1.8.8: "sanctum" est quod ab iniuria hominum defensum atque munitum est ("it is sanctum that which is defended and protected from the attack of men").
- ^ Huguette Fugier, Recherches sur l'expression du sacré dans la langue latine, Archives des sciences sociales des religions, 1964, Volume 17, Issue 17, p.180 [4]
- ^ Servius glosses Amsancti valles (Aeneid 7.565) as loci amsancti, id est omni parte sancti ("amsancti valleys: amsancti places, that is, sanctus here in the sense of secluded, protected by a fence, on every side"). The Oxford Latin Dictionary, however, identifies Ampsanctus in this instance and in Cicero, De divinatione 1.79 as a proper noun referring to a valley and lake in Samnium regarded as an entrance to the Underworld because of its mephitic air.
- ^ Ovid, Fasti 2.658.
- ^ Ovid Fasti 1.608-9.
- ^ Nancy Edwards, "Celtic Saints and Early Medieval Archaeology", in Local Saints and Local Churches in the Early Medieval West (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 229 online.
- ^ Robert A. Castus, CIcero: Speech on Behalf of Publius Sestius (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 416; Susanne William Rasmussen, Public Portents in Republican Rome (Rome, 2003), p. 163 online.
- ^ C.T. Lewis & C. Short, A Latin Dictionary, Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1879. Online at [5]
- ^ Pliny Naturalis Historia XXVIII 11; Seneca De Vita Beata XXVI 7; Cicero De Divinatione I 102; Servius Danielis In Aeneidem V 71.
- ^ Cicero De Divinatione II 71 and 72; Festus v. Silentio surgere p. 474 L; v. Sinistrum; Livy VII 6, 3-4; T. I. VI a 5-7.
- ^ Livy VIII 23, 15; IX 38, 14; IV 57, 5.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 206.
- ^ Thomas N. Habinek, The World of Roman Song: From Ritualized Speech to Social Order pp. 36–37.
- Robert E.A. Palmer, "Silvanus, Sylvester, and the Chair of St. Peter", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 122 (1978), pp. 237, 243.
- ^ Attilio Mastrocinque, "Creating One's Own Religion: Intellectual Choices", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 382.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, 15.9.8; Georges Dottin, Manuel pour servir à l'étude de l'Antiquité Celtique (Paris, 1906), pp. 279–289: the sodalicia consortia of the druids "ne signifie pas autre chose qu'associations corporatives, collèges, plus ou moins analogues aux collèges sacerdotaux des Romains" (sodalicia consortia can "mean nothing other than corporate associations, colleges, more or less analogous to the priestly colleges of the Romans").
- ^ Eric Orlin, "Urban Religion in the Middle and Late Republic", in A Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 63–64; John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", p. 268.
- ^ Gaius, Digest xlvii.22.4 = Twelve Tables viii.27; A. Drummond, "Rome in the Fifth Century", Cambridge Ancient History: The Rise of Rome to 220 B.C. (Cambridge University Press, 1989, 2002 reprint), vol. 7, part 2, p. 158 online.
- Commentariolum petitionis de Quintus Cicéron", Aufstieg under Niedergang der römischen Welt I (1973) pp. 252, 276–277.
- ^ W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p.127.
- ^ W. H. Buckler The origin and history of contract in Roman law 1895 pp. 13-15
- ^ The Hittite is also written as sipant or ispant-.
- Servius, note to AeneidX 79
- ^ In conjunction with archaeological evidence from Lavinium.
- ^ G. Dumezil "La deuxieme ligne de l'inscription de Duenos" in Latomus 102 1969 pp. 244-255; Idees romaines Paris 1969 pp. 12 ff.
- ^ Jörg Rüpke, "Roman Religion — Religions of Rome," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 5.
- ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, pp. 215–217.
- ^ Maijastina Kahlos, Debate and Dialogue: Christian and Pagan Cultures c. 360-430 (Ashgate, 2007), p. 95.
- ^ Seneca, De clementia 2.5.1; Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 216.
- ^ Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 216.
- ^ Yasmin Haskell, "Religion and Enlightenment in the Neo-Latin Reception of Lucretius," in The Cambridge Companion to Lucretius (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 198 online.
- ^ Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, pp. 217–219.
- ^ Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 221.
- ^ Lactantius, Divine Institutes 4.28.11; Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 216.
- ^ Frances Hickson Hahn, "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns," pp. 238, 247, and John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors," p. 270, both in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007).
- ^ Veit Rosenberger, in "Religious Actors in Daily Life: Practices and Related Beliefs," in A Companion to Roman Religion, p. 296.
- ^ W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York 1963 sv temple
- ^ Mary Beard, Simon Price, John North, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 23.
- ^ Beard et al., "Religions of Rome," vol. 1, p. 23.
- ^ Servius Ad Aeneid 4.200; Festus. s.v. calls the auguraculum minora templa.
- ^ G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974 p.510: J. Marquardt "Le cult chez les romaines" Manuel des antiquités romaines XII 1. French Transl. 1889 pp. 187-188: See also Cicero, De Legibus, 2.2, & Servius,Aeneid, 4.200.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2266–2267 online, and 2292–2293. On legal usage, see also Elizabeth A. Meyer, Legitimacy and Law in the Roman World (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 80ff.; Daniel J. Gargola, Land, Laws and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands in Republican Rome (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 202, note 55 online.
- ^ Meyer, Legitimacy and Law, p. 62 online.
- ^ Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Augustus and Vesta", in Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion (Brill, 1980), p. 211 online.
- ^ Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion", Numen 46 (1999) 1–52.
- ^ Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2246, 2267ff.
- ^ The jurist Gaius (4.30) says that concepta verba is synonymous with formulae, as cited by Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1991 reprint), p. 401, and Shane Butler, The Hand of Cicero (Routledge, 2002), p. 10.
- ^ T. Corey Brennan, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 131–132.
- ^ Augustine, Confessions 11.xviii, as cited by Paolo Bartoloni, On the Cultures of Exile, Translation, and Writing (Purdue University Press, 2008), p. 69 online.
- How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics (Oxford University Press, 1995), passim, especially pp. 68–70 on memory and the poet-priest (Latin vates) as "the preserver and the professional of the spoken word". "For the Romans", notes Frances Hickson Hahn, "there was no distinction between prayer and spell and poetry and song; all were intimately linked to one another"; see "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 236
- ^ Gian Biagio Conte, Latin Literature: A History (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994, originally published 1987 in Italian), pp. 15–23; George A. Sheets, "Elements of Style in Catullus," in A Companion to Catullus (Blackwell, 2011) n.p.
- ^ Katja Moede, "Reliefs, Public and Private", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 173.
- ^ John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 264, 266.
- ^ For the Taurobolium, see Duthoy, Robert, The Taurobolium: Its Evolution and Terminology, Volume 10, Brill, 1969, p. 1 ff, and Cameron, Alan, The Last Pagans of Rome, Oxford University press, 2011, p. 163. The earliest known Taurobolium was dedicated to the goddess Venus Caelestis in 134 AD.
- ^ Steven J. Green, Ovid, Fasti 1: A Commentary (Brill, 2004), pp.159–160.
- ^ Servius, note to Aeneid 1. 334.
- Fasti1.335:; hostibus a domitis hostia nomen habet ("the hostia gets its name from the 'hostiles' that have been defeated"), 1.336.
- ^ Mary Beard, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 368.
- ^ Katja Moede, "Reliefs, Public and Private", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 168.
- ^ Marietta Horster, "Living on Religion: Professionals and Personnel", in A Companion to Roman Religion (ed. Rüpke), pp. 332–334.
- ^ Therefore the election must have been vitiated in some way known only to Jupiter: see Veit Rosenberger, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p.298; citing Cicero, De Divinatione, 2.77.
- ^ David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 178.
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia III 2,12.
- ^ William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1908), p. 179'; Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001), p. 75.
- ^ John Scheid, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 270; William Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), pp. 200–202.