Sadness
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Sadness is an
Sadness is one of the six basic emotions described by Paul Ekman, along with happiness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust.[2]: 271–4
Childhood
Sadness is a common experience in childhood. Sometimes, sadness can lead to depression. Some families may have a (conscious or unconscious) rule that sadness is "not allowed",[3] but Robin Skynner has suggested that this may cause problems, arguing that with sadness "screened off", people can become shallow and manic.[4]: 33, 36 Pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton suggests that acknowledging sadness can make it easier for families to address more serious emotional problems.[5]: 46, 48
Sadness is part of the normal process of the child separating from an early symbiosis with the mother and becoming more independent. Every time a child separates a little more, he or she will have to cope with a small loss. If the mother cannot allow the minor distress involved, the child may never learn how to deal with sadness by themselves.[4]: 158–9 Brazelton argues that too much cheering a child up devalues the emotion of sadness for them;[5]: 52 and Selma Fraiberg suggests that it is important to respect a child's right to experience a loss fully and deeply.[6]
Neuroanatomy
A large amount of research has been conducted on the neuroscience of sadness.
Coping mechanisms
People deal with sadness in different ways, and it is an important emotion because it helps to motivate people to deal with their situation. Some coping mechanisms include: getting social support and/or spending time with a pet,[16] creating a list, or engaging in some activity to express sadness.[17] Some individuals, when feeling sad, may exclude themselves from a social setting, so as to take the time to recover from the feeling.[citation needed]
While being one of the moods people most want to shake, sadness can sometimes be perpetuated by the very coping strategies chosen, such as ruminating, "drowning one's sorrows", or permanently isolating oneself.[2]: 69–70 As alternative ways of coping with sadness to the above, cognitive behavioral therapy suggests instead either challenging one's negative thoughts, or scheduling some positive event as a distraction.[2]: 72
Being attentive to, and patient with, one's sadness may also be a way for people to learn through solitude;[18] while emotional support to help people stay with their sadness can be further helpful.[4]: 164 Such an approach is fueled by the underlying belief that loss (when felt wholeheartedly) can lead to a new sense of aliveness, and to a re-engagement with the outside world.[19]
Pupil empathy
Pupil size may be an indicator of sadness. A sad facial expression with small pupils is judged to be more intensely sad as the pupil size decreases.[20] A person's own pupil size also mirrors this and becomes smaller when viewing sad faces with small pupils. No parallel effect exists when people look at neutral, happy or angry expressions.[20] The greater degree to which a person's pupils mirror another predicts a person's greater score on empathy.[21] In disorders such as autism and psychopathy, facial expressions that represent sadness may be subtle, which may show a need for a more non-linguistic situation to affect their level of empathy.[21]
Vocal expression
According to
Sadness is, as stated by Klaus Scherer, one of the "best-recognized emotions in the human voice", although it's "generally somewhat lower than that of facial expression". In a study by Scherer, it was found that in Western countries sadness had 79% of accuracy for facial recognition and 71% for vocal, while in Non-Western countries the results were of 74% and 58%, respectively.[26]
Cultural explorations
During the Renaissance, Edmund Spenser in The Faerie Queene endorsed sadness as a marker of spiritual commitment.[27]
In
Julia Kristeva considered that "a diversification of moods, variety in sadness, refinement in sorrow or mourning are the imprint of a humanity that is surely not triumphant but subtle, ready to fight and creative".[30]
See also
References
- PMID 22962516.
- ^ a b c Goleman, Daniel (1996). Emotional Intelligence. London, United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 2018-06-21. Retrieved 2018-06-21.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 9781741757576.
- ^ a b c Skynner, Robin; Cleese, John (1994). Families and How to Survive Them.
- ^ a b Brazelton, T. Berry (1992). To Listen to a Child.
- ^ Fraiberg, Selma H. (1987). The Magic Years. New York, United States. p. 274.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ISBN 9780465066599.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Winnicott, D.W. (1973). The Child, the Family, and the Outside World. United Kingdom: Penguin Books. p. 64.
- ^ "Robert Plutchik's Psychoevolutionary Theory of Basic Emotions" (PDF). Adliterate.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-06-09. Retrieved 2017-06-05.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-6436-0. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
- ^ Atifa Athar; M. Saleem Khan; Khalil Ahmed; Aiesha Ahmed; Nida Anwar (June 2011). "A Fuzzy Inference System for Synergy Estimation of Simultaneous Emotion Dynamics in Agents". International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research. 2 (6). Archived from the original on 2016-11-12. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
- PMID 32001274.
- PMID 9210742.
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- PMID 26963923.
- ^ "Why It's Import to Express Your Sadness". Free Online Therapy. October 2018. Archived from the original on 2018-11-29.
- JSTOR i40009359.
- ISBN 978-0415211826.
- ^ PMID 17186063.
- ^ PMID 18039039.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-319-28047-9. Archivedfrom the original on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
- ^ Yildirim, Serdar; Bulut, Murtaza; M. Lee, Chul; Kazemzadeh, Abe; Busso, Carlos; Deng, Zhigang; Lee, Sungbok; Narayanan, Shrikanth (2004). "An acoustic study of emotions expressed in speech" (PDF). ISCA: 1. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
- S2CID 52998542.
- (PDF) from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
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- ISBN 9780521834698.
- ISBN 9780261102309.
- ISBN 9780261102750.
- ISBN 9780674634404. Archivedfrom the original on 2018-06-21. Retrieved 2018-06-21.
Further reading
- Karp DA (1997). Speaking of Sadness. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195113860.
- Keltner D; Ellsworth PC; Edwards K (May 1993). "Beyond simple pessimism: effects of sadness and anger on social perception". J Pers Soc Psychol. 64 (5): 740–52. PMID 8505705.
- Tiedens LZ (January 2001). "Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral". J Pers Soc Psychol. 80 (1): 86–94. PMID 11195894.
- Ambady & Gray, 2002[permanent dead link]
- Forgas JP (March 1998). "On feeling good and getting your way: mood effects on negotiator cognition and bargaining strategies". J Pers Soc Psychol. 74 (3): 565–77. PMID 11407408.
- Forgas JP (August 1998). "On being happy and mistaken: mood effects on the fundamental attribution error". J Pers Soc Psychol. 75 (2): 318–31. PMID 9731311.
- Forgas JP (1994). "The role of emotion in social judgments: an introductory review and an Affect Infusion Model (AIM)". Eur J Soc Psychol. 24 (1): 1–24. .
- Forgas JP; Bower GH (July 1987). "Mood effects on person-perception judgments". J Pers Soc Psychol. 53 (1): 53–60. S2CID 6508502.
- Isen AM; Daubman KA; Nowicki GP (June 1987). "Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving". J Pers Soc Psychol. 52 (6): 1122–31. PMID 3598858.
- Keltner D; Kring AM (1998). "Emotion, social function, and psychopathology" (PDF). Review of General Psychology. 2 (3): 320–342. S2CID 247805. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2007-06-11.