Sahrawis
صحراويون | |
---|---|
The Sahrawis, or Sahrawi people (
As with most peoples living in the Sahara, the Sahrawi culture is a mix of Arab and indigenous African elements.[9] Sahrawis are composed of many tribes and are largely speakers of the Hassaniya dialect of Arabic.[10]
Etymology
The
- Berber: Aseḥrawi ⴰⵙⴻⵃⵔⴰⵡⵉ or Aneẓrofan ⴰⵏⴻⵥⵔⵓⴼⴰⵏ
- English: Sahrawi or Saharawi
- Spanish: Saharaui (saharauita, saharauiya)
- French: Sahraoui
- Italian: Saharaui, Sahraui,[11] Sahrawi or Saharawi
- Portuguese: Saarauís[12][13][14][15][16]
- German: Sahraui(s)
History
Early history
in Mauritania.In the 11th century, the
This tribe entered the domains of the
The modern day Sahrawis are a mixed ethnic group of Arabs, West Africans & diverse Berbers. The people inhabit the westernmost Sahara desert, in the area of modern Mauritania, Morocco, Western Sahara, and parts of Algeria. (Some tribes would also traditionally migrate into northern Mali and Niger, or even further along the Saharan caravan routes.) As with most Saharan peoples, the tribes reflect a highly mixed heritage, combining Arab, and other influences, including ethnic and cultural characteristics found in many ethnic groups of the Sahel. The latter were primarily acquired through mixing with Wolof, Soninke and other populations of the southern Sahel, and through the acquisition of slaves by wealthier nomad families.
In pre-colonial times, the Sahara was generally considered Blad Essiba or "the land of dissidence" by the Moroccan central government and
European colonialism
Modern distinctions drawn between the various
The Sahrawi-Moorish areas, then still undefined as to exact territorial boundaries, proved troublesome for the colonizers, just as they had for neighbouring dynasties in previous centuries. The political loyalty of these populations were first and foremost to their respective tribes, and supertribal allegiances and alliances would shift rapidly and unexpectedly. Their nomadic lifestyle made direct control over the territories hard to achieve, as did general lawlessness, an absence of prior central authority, and a widely held contempt for the kind of settled life that the colonizers sought to bring about. Centuries of intertribal warfare and raids for loot (ghazzu) guaranteed that the populations were well armed and versed in guerilla-style warfare. Tribes allied to hostile European powers would now also be considered fair game for cattle raids on those grounds, which tied the struggle against France and Spain into the traditional power play of the nomads, aggravating the internal struggles.
Uprisings and violent tribal clashes therefore took place with increasing frequency as European encroachment increased, and on occasion took the form of anti-colonial holy war, or Jihad, as in the case of the Ma al-'Aynayn uprising in the first years of the 20th century. It was not until the 1930s that Spain was able to finally subdue the interior of present-day Western Sahara, and then only with strong French military assistance. Mauritania's raiding Moors had been brought under control in the previous decades, partly through skilful exploitation by the French of traditional rivalries and social divisions between the tribes. In these encounters, the large Reguibat tribe proved especially resistant to the new rulers, and its fighters would regularly slip in out of French and Spanish territory, similarly exploiting the rivalries between European powers. The last major Reguibat raid took place in 1934, after which the Spanish authorities occupied Smara, finally gaining control over the last unpatrolled border territories.
The Sahrawi-Moorish tribes remained largely nomadic until the early to mid-20th century, when Franco-Spanish rivalries (as well as disagreements between different wings of the French colonial regime) managed to impose rigid, if arbitrary, borders on the previously fluid Sahara. The wide-ranging grazing lands of the nomads were split apart, and their traditional economies, based on trans-Saharan caravan trade and raiding of each other and the northern and southern Sahel neighbors, were broken. Little attention was paid to existing tribal confederations and zones of influence when dividing up the Saharan interior.
Different colonial practices
French and Spanish colonial governments would gradually, and with varying force, impose their own systems of government and education over these territories, exposing the native populations to differing colonial experiences. The populations in
Debate on pre-colonial allegiances
The period of colonization radically changed existing power structures, leaving a confused legacy of contradictory political affiliations, European-drawn borders with little resemblance to ethnic and tribal realities, and the foundations of modern political conflict.
For example, both sides in the Western Sahara conflict (Morocco vs. the Polisario Front) draw heavily on colonial history to prove their version of reality. Proponents of the Greater Morocco ideology point to some Sahrawi tribes calling upon the Moroccan sultan, who until 1912 remained the last independent Islamic ruler of the area, for assistance against the Europeans (see Ma al-'Aynayn). Pro-independence Sahrawis, on the other hand, point out that such statements of allegiance were almost routinely given by various tribal leaders to create short-term alliances, and that other heads of tribes indeed similarly proclaimed allegiance to Spain, to France, to Mauritanian emirates, and indeed to each other; they argue that such arrangements always proved temporary, and that the tribal confederations always maintained de facto independence of central authority, and would even fight to maintain this independence.
The
Decolonisation attempts
The Western Sahara conflict
The area today referred to as Western Sahara remains, according to the United Nations, one of the world's last remaining major
The Polisario Front
The Polisario Front is the Western Sahara's national liberation movement, fighting for the independence of the Western Sahara since 1973—originally against Spanish rule; after 1975, against Mauritania and Morocco; since 1979, against Morocco only. The organization is based in Algeria, where it is responsible for the
Demographics
Ethnic background: Berbers and Arabs
As described above, the
Some tribes, such as the large
However, most tribes, regardless of their mixed heritage, tend to claim some form of Arab ancestry, as this has been key to achieving social status. Many (the so-called
Social and ethnic hierarchy
This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. (August 2011) |
Generally speaking, the Hassaniya populations were (or are) divided into several groups, of different social status.[21]
At the peak of society were the
Below them ranked servile groups known as
An important reference on Sahrawi population ethnography is the work of Spanish anthropologist Julio Caro Baroja, who in 1952–53 spent several months among native tribes of the Spanish Sahara. He published a 1955 book on the subject.[22]
Population
According to the Ethnologue database, there were more than three million
Languages
Sahrawis' native language is the
Modern Standard Arabic and the Amazigh language (a standardized version of Moroccan Berber languages) are the official languages of the Moroccan administered part of Western Sahara. While Standard Arabic is the only official language in Mauritania, Algeria and the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
The current Moroccan constitution (adopted in July 2011) mentions, in its 5th article, the Hassaniya language and recommends its preservation as a cultural heritage of Morocco.[24]
Due to the past colonization of
The refugees
After the
As of January 2018, the number of Sahrawi refugees living in the five camps in Tindouf is estimated about 174.000, of whom 125,000 were entitled to food and nutrition assistance by UNHCR and 90,000 individuals regarded "most vulnerable refugees".[3] The Moroccan government has contended that the figure is much lower, around 45,000 to 50,000, and that these people are kept in the refugee camps against their will by Polisario.[28]
Mauritania housed as of 2009 about 26,000 Sahrawi refugees, classified by UNHCR as "people in a refugee-like situation". Many of them moved back and forth from the camps in Tindouf, Algeria.[5]
Additionally, between 3,000 and 12,000 Sahrawis live in Spain, their former colonizer.[6][7]
In 2018, thirty Sahrawi refugees died in an air crash of Algerian Air Force Il-76. They had been visiting Algiers for various medical and bureaucratic reasons. Sahrawis from the refugee camps are regularly provided with free flights in Algerian military transport aircraft.[29]
Culture
Religion
Tribalism
- See article on tribalism and the list of Sahrawi tribes.
The tribe was the historical basis of social and political organisation among the Hassaniya-speaking tribes of the Sahara, well into the colonial and arguably post-colonial period. Traditionally, Hassaniya Sahrawi society was completely tribal, organized in a complex web of shifting alliances and tribal confederations, with no stable and centralized governing authority.
Lawmaking, conflict resolution and central decision-making within the tribe, was carried out by the
Notable people
See also
- Sahrawi refugees
- Bedouin
- Cape Juby
- Green March
- History of Western Sahara
- List of Spanish colonial wars in Morocco
- James Riley (Captain)
References
- ^ "Africa :: Western Sahara - The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". cia.gov. 17 November 2020. Archived from the original on 17 November 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
- ^ Shefte, Whitney (6 January 2015). "Western Sahara's stranded refugees consider renewal of Morocco conflict". The Guardian.
- ^ a b Sahrawi Refugees in Tindouf, Algeria: Total In‐Camp Population. UNHCR, March 2018
- ^ Morocco overview-Minorities-Saharawis Archived 19 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples
- ^ a b World Refugee Survey 2009 - Mauritania. USCRI, 17 June 2009. Archived
- ^ a b "La policía detuvo a saharauis en Jaén al pedir la residencia". El País. 16 June 2010. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
- ^ a b Carmen Gómez Martín. La migracion saharaui en Espana. Estrategias de visibilidad en el tercer tiempo del exilio. Retrieved 21 August 2012. Page 52, Note 88:"Actualmente es imposible aportar cifras exactas sobre el número de saharauis instalados en el país, ya que no existen datos oficiales elaborados por la administración española o por las autoridades saharauis. A través de la información recogida durante el trabajo de campo de la tesis se calculó su número entre 10.000–12.000 personas, instaladas de preferencia en la costa mediterránea (Cataluña, Comunidad Valenciana, Murcia y Andalucía), Islas Canarias, País Vasco y Extremadura" (in Spanish)
- ^ "Western Sahara: Kitesurfing in the Dakhla Danger Zone". BBC. 25 December 2016.
- ^ a b atlasofhumanity.com. "Sahrawi People". Atlas Of Humanity. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
- ^ Julio, Javi (21 November 2015). "Desert schools bloom in Sahrawi refugee camps – in pictures". the Guardian. Retrieved 4 June 2017.
- ^ "Ufficio delle pubblicazioni — Manuale interistituzionale di convenzioni redazionali — Allegato A5 — Elenco degli Stati, dei territori e delle monete". europa.eu.
- ^ S.A., Priberam Informática. "Significado / definição de saarauí no Dicionário Priberam da Língua Portuguesa". Priberam.pt. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
- ^ "Rajoy viaja para Rabat para manter boas relações com Marrocos | VEJA.com". Veja.abril.com.br. 17 January 2012. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
- ^ "No meio do caminho havia a Venezuela – Internacional – Estadão". Internacional.estadao.com.br. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
- ^ "União Africana —". 26 May 2015. Archived from the original on 26 May 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Angola: Luanda reafirma apoio à causa do povo saarauí – Inforpress – Sapo Notícias". Noticias.sapo.cv. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
- ^ "Archived copy". lcweb2.loc.gov. Archived from the original on 10 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ [1] Archived 7 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Proclamation on Recognizing The Sovereignty Of The Kingdom Of Morocco Over The Western Sahara". US Embassy. Retrieved 9 April 2023.
- ^ ODS Team. "ODS HOME PAGE" (PDF). un.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2012.
- ^ "About this Collection – Country Studies | Digital Collections | Library of Congress". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
- ISBN 978-84-96235-28-1.
- ^ Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.
- ^ Article 5 of the 2011 Moroccan constitution
- ^ "Quienes somos?". spsrasd.info. Archived from the original on 25 September 2011.
- ^ ACAPS Briefing Note: Algeria: Sahrawi refugees in Tindouf, 19 Jan 2022 (See pdf)
- ^ National Geographic Magazine, December 2008
- ^ Country of origin information report: Algeria, p. 143. UK Border Agency, 30 Sep 2008
- ^ "Argelia: Mueren al menos 257 personas al estrellarse un avión militar en Boufarik". RTVE.es (in European Spanish). 11 April 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
- ^ Western Sahara? 30-days.net
Sources
- Hodges, Tony (1983), Western Sahara: The Roots of a Desert War, Lawrence Hill Books (ISBN 0-88208-152-7)
- Jensen, Erik (2005), Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate, International Peace Studies (ISBN 1-58826-305-3)
- Mercer, John (1976), Spanish Sahara, George Allen & Unwid Ltd (ISBN 0-04-966013-6)
- Norris, H.T. (1986), The Arab Conquest of the Western Sahara, Longman Publishing Group (ISBN 0-582-75643-X)
- Pazzanita, Anthony G. and Hodges, Tony (1994), Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara, Scarecrow Press (ISBN 0-8108-2661-5)
- Shelley, Toby (2004), Endgame in the Western Sahara: What Future for Africa's Last Colony?, Zed Books (ISBN 1-84277-341-0)
- Thobhani, Akbarali (2002), Western Sahara Since 1975 Under Moroccan Administration: Social, Economic, and Political Transformation, Edwin Mellen Press (ISBN 0-7734-7173-1)
- Thompson, Virginia and Adloff, Richard (1980), The Western Saharans. Background to Conflict, Barnes & Noble Books (ISBN 0-389-20148-0)